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THE Gentleman's Maqasine: HISTORICAL REVIEW. MAY, 1863. CONTENTS. PAGE MINOR CORRESPONDENCE.—Archeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 538 Trish Round Towers ............scsssesseseees sceececcccesocooes savtcrsdcocss 539 The Lady-chapel, Chester Cathedral ..... sissipi teased cdot sicdaneaiucteiiaeadiaeiasa wa Comte de Vogiié on the Holy Places at Jerusalem .. domeseoncaanees sm The Royal National Life-boat Institution ......... sob + $63 Romano-British Inscriptions .............sse0ee0s coskasenaens snecninnabaveubhsseens woe 504 Appleby Token ...............ss0008 soneuenian inakinaceidcaanccusas saitonemenestecsBe 571 Cornish Churches .......... icaanaiatainmnneine’ inhespuiercmncs citdonees sasseasaceskevenin 572 Discoveries at Pompeii ...............scccseeeeees isesaeensia pS dadertaschenmaseanesoaen 582 The Hereford Map of the World.......... bpadina Cacaabuseaesin socceees 583 ANTIQUARIAN AND LITERARY INTELLIGENCE. — Society of Antiquaries of London, 593; Archeological Institute, 595; British Archeological Association, 599 ; Architectural Museum, 600; Royal Institute of British Architects, 606; Ecclesiological Society, 607 ; Ethnological Society, 609 ; Numismatic Society, 610; The Chetham Society, 611; Glasgow Archzeological Society, 614; Kilkenny and South-East of Irelan “Archeological Society, 616; Leeds Philosophical and Lite- rary Society, 618; Leicestershire Architectural’ and Archeological Society — Society of ‘A ntiquaries, Newcastle-upon-'I'yne, 620; Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 623; Yorkshire Philosophical Society | CORRESPONDENCE OF SYLVANUS URBAN.—Indenture of Award and Agreement, temp. Henry VI., 628; Isle of Wight Vernacular, 630; Shields of Arms in North Luffenham Church, 633; The Danish Royal Succession, 634; Celtic Remains in Kent, 636; Mr. Thorpe’ 8 Diplomatorium ‘Anglicum—Knaresborough Castle, 638 ; St. Paul’s ’and the Railway Viaduct, 641; The Tabernacle in Medieval Times— Cardinal Wolsey’s Grave in Leicester Abbey HISTORICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS REVIEWS, AND LITERARY NOTICES.— Greswell’s Three Witnesses, and the Threefold Cord—Dr. Colenso’s Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua Considered — Pott’s Liber Cantabri: iensis, Part II., 643; Acworth’s Church-rates and the Liberation Society — ee Counsels and Warnings before and after Confirmation mm MONTHLY INTELLIGENCE APPOINTMENTS, PREFERMENTS, AND PROMOTIONS BIRTHS MARRIAGES .. OBITUARY.— The Duke of Grafton — Lieut.-Gen. Sir James Outram, G.C.B., 657; Mr. Sheridan Knowles, 658; The Ven. Archdeacon Drury, 660; Stacey Grimaldi, Esq., 661; David Scott Kinloch Maclaurin, Esq.—Mr. Daniel Whittle Harvey CLERGY DECEASED DEATHS ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER Registrar-General’s Return of Mortality and Births in the Metropolis—Markets, — Meteorological Diary—Daily Price of Stocks i i ei a ee es Me Ml Me Me Bel —_ ea VS be ell vy ev =v (CS By SYLVANUS URBAN, GENT. MINOR CORRESPONDENCE. Notice.—Sy.vanus Ursan requests bis Friends to observe that Reports, Correspondence, Books for Review, announcements of Births, Marriages, and Deaths, &c., received after the 20th instant, cannot be attended to until the following Month. ARCHZOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Tue Annual Meeting for 1863 will be held at Rochester, commencing Tues- day, July 28, and closing Tuesday, Au- gust 4, under the presidency of The Most Noble the Marquis Camden, K.G., P.K.A.S, Rochester presents a centre of arche- ological attraction not only in the Ca- thedral and noble Castle, and in minor objects, but also numerous ancient sites and architectural examples, ecclesiasti- cal, castellated, and domestic, of re- markable interest, advantageously ac- cessible on such an occasion; as the ancient stronghold of the Cobham family at Cowling; Cobham Church, with its series of sepulchral brasses; the gallery of paintings at Cobham Hall; the sup- »sed remains of Saxon architecture at artford and Swanscombe Churches; the churches of Cliffe, Darenth, Stone, and Farningham; Boxley Abbey; Malling Abbey ; Maidstone, with its fine church, museum, and numerous objects in the vicinity; the remarkable examples, moreover, of military architecture—the Mote at Ightham; Leeds Castle; Al- lington Castle; Old Soar; and Knole, with its celebrated assemblage of his- torical portraits. ‘To those who in- vestigate traces of Roman occupation, the extensive potteries in the Upchurch Marshes, near Rochester, present a sub- ject of interesting inquiry; among re- mains of a still earlier age may be cited Kits Coty House, the most curious primeval monument in the south-eastern parts of England; and the fallen crom- lech at Addington, the semicircle of stones and chamber at Coldrum. Of these localities many may be included in the scheme of general excursions now in preparation, whilst others, compara- tively difficult of access, may be avail- able to special parties. Mr. Roach Smith has offered his services as guide to either Coldrum or the Upchurch Potteries. The general proceedings will, as usual, be arranged under three Sections: — History, Earty AND MeEptIrvat AN- TIQUITIES, and ARCHITECTUKE, under the presidency of the Dean of Chichester, Lord Talbot de Maluhide, and the Rev. Protessor Willis. Among the subjects to be discussed, the Dean of Chichester has promised a memoir on the Life and Times of Gundulph. The important questions connected with the Landing of Julius Cesar in Britain will be brought before the meeting by Dr.Guest. The Architectural History of the Cathedral and Conventual Buildings has been un- dertaken by Professor Willis; and Ro- chester Castle by the Rev. C. H. Harts- horne. ‘The Rev. J. Earle will give a dissertation on the Archeology of Kentish local names. A Temporary Museum will be formed, by the kind permission of the Mayor and Corporation, at the Corn Exchange: and will embrace all objects of interest which may serve to aid Historical or Archeological researches, especially — but not exclusively —such as are con- nected with the city of Rochester or the county of Kent. Persons disposed to contribute objects to the Museum are re- quested to communicate with the Secre- taries of the Local Committee at Ro- chester, or with the Secretaries of the Institute in London. Expenses of con- veyance will be defrayed. . Portraits of Kentish Worthies, also manuscripts, autographs, or other bio- graphical materials will be collected, as of Camden, Twysden, Sidney, Dering, Wyatt, Manwood, Finch, Walsingham, Wotton, Lambarde, Somner, Weever, and Plot, with a host of other time- honoured memories. It has been sug- gested that the occasion were favourable for displaying the precious productions of the Father of English typography, Caxton, a native of the Weald of Kent. Admission to the proceedings of the week, the Museum, &c., will be, as at the annual meetings of the British As- sociation for the Promotion of Science, by tickets. Price for gentlemen, mem- bers of the Institute or visitors alike (not transferable), one guinea; ladies’ tickets (transierable), half-a-guinea. A Committee for preliminary arrange- ments has been formed at Rochester, and the following gentlemen have con- sented to act as Local Secretaries : — G. Brindley Acworth, Esq., Registrar of the County Court ; Augustus Arnold, Esq. ; and the Rev. R. P. Coates, M.A. Secretaries of the Institute. Josepu Burtt, Cuar.es TUCKER, ALBERT Way, The Gentleman's HMagasine HISTORICAL REVIEW. IRISH ROUND TOWERS:*. Tue view which Mr. Westropp takes in this paper is indi- cated by its title. There is nothing absolutely new in the idea that there is a close connection between the Lanternes des morts in France and the Irish Round Towers. Mr. Westropp brings forward no new facts; these have all been collected and pub- lished by Dr. Petrie and M. A. de Caumont many years since. Nevertheless there is merit in what Mr. Westropp has done, and he deserves credit for the good sense and sound reasoning by which .he shews the close analogy between these two classes of objects; and by placing them in juxtaposition he does to a considerable extent throw new light upon them. Both classes are structures erected in cemeteries by two nations of the Celtic race closely connected and allied: both had the same end in view, and both belong mainly to the same period, from the eleventh century to the thirteenth. We think that Mr. Westropp suc- ceeds in shewing that it is probable the round towers were intended in some instances to have a light of some kind at the top, and that they were not erected merely as detached belfries, although they were certainly used for that purpose in many instances, and there is no reason why they should not have been used for both purposes. The sound of a bell was quite as likely to be useful in guiding funerals to the cemetery as a light-house, in a country without roads; the sound would often be heard where the light could not be seen; and the towers might be erected as monuments to some great chieftain, equally on either hypothesis. ® “On the Fanauxr de Cimetiéres in France, and the Round Towers in Ireland. By Hodder M. Westropp, Esq.” 8vo., 5 pp. (From the Transactions of the Kilkenny and South-East of Ireland Archeological Society.) Gznt. Maa., Dec. 1862, p. 716. “ Notices, Historical and Architectural, of the Round Towers of Brechin. By Richard Rolt Brash, Esq., Architect, Cork.” (From the Proceedings of the Auti- quarian Society of Scotland, vol. iv.) 4to., 24 pp. (Edinburgh: Neill and Co.) 540 Irish Round Towers. [May, The Cours d’Antiquités, by M. A. de Caumont, has been familiar to us for very many years, but it seems to be new to Mr. Westropp, and may be so to many of our readers, for another generation of antiquaries has sprung up since it was published; and although his popular abridgment of it, under the title of Abécédaire d’ Archéologie, is well known to many who have not seen the orginal Cours, the latter still contains many things necessarily omitted from want of space in a popu- lar abridgment. The extracts and summary given by Mr. Westropp are therefore entitled to a hearty welcome, and we gladly assist in giving them a wider circulation :— “In reading De Caumont’s Cours d Antiquités Monwmentales, vol. vi., I have been struck with a remarkable analogy between the Irish round tower and what is named in De Caumont a fanal de cimetiére, a ‘beacon of a ceme- tery,’ and also ‘lantern of the dead,’ which has led me to add another specu- lation to the already long list, and to infer that the Irish round towers derive their origin from France, and that they were erected in cemeteries as memo- rials of the dead, and were used as beacons to guide funeral processions to the churchyards, the light in the tower serving also as a signal to recall to the passers-by the presence of the departed, and calling on them ‘for their prayers. The following is De Caumont’s description of the fanaux :— *Fanaux de cimetiére are hollow towers, round or square, having at their summit several openings, in which were placed, in ‘the Middle Ages (twelfth and thirteenth centuries), lighted lamps, in the centre of large cemeteries. The purpose of the lamp was to light, during the night, funeral processions which came from afar, and which could not always reach the burial-ground before the close of day. The beacon—lighted, if not always, at least on cer- tain occasions, on the summit of the towers—was a sort of homage offered to the memory of the dead ; a signal, recalling to the passers by the presence of the departed, and cailing on them for their prayers. M. Villegille has found in Pierre de Cluni, who died in 1156, a passage which confirms my opinion. These are the words in which he expresses himself with regard to the small tower of the beacon of the monastery of Cherlieu :—‘ Obtinet medium cimeterii locum structura quadam lapidea, habens in summitate sui quantitatem unius lampadis capacem, que ob reverentiam fidelium ibi quiescentium, totis noc- tibus fulgure suo locum illum sacratum illustrat.’ M. Lecointre Dupont re- marks that these towers or beacons are found particularly in cemeteries which were by the side of high roads, or which were in greatly frequented places. The motive for erecting these beacons was, he says, to save the living from the fear of ghosts and spirits of darkness, with which the imagination of our ancestors peopled the cemeteries during the night-time; to protect them from that timore nocturno, from that pestilence perambulante in tenebris of which the Psalmist speaks ; lastly, to incite the living to pray for the dead. As to the origin of these sepulchral towers, and chapels surmounted by towers (these I shall mention further on), nothing certain is known. Le Cointre thinks that they are of very ancient origin, and can be traced per- haps to the early periods of Christianity. Without disputing this opinion, which would require to be confirmed by authorities which I am not in a posi- Irish Round Towers. ae - WI ee Gent. Mac. Vot, CCXIV. 542 Irish Round Towers. [MAY tion to produce, I think that it was about the twelfth century, consequently about the time of the Crusades, that the greater number of these structures were built ; for, among those which remain, I know of none to which an earlier date can be assigned than that of the end of the eleventh century, and many are of the thirteenth century. Some of those which were rebuilt in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries took the form of a high tower ; such is at Bordeaux the tower of Peyberland, not far from the cathedral. This very high tower was commenced in 1481, and finished in 1492; but it has suc- ceeded or was built on a sepulchral chapel ; for it is known that in 1397 the base on which it was built was used as a sepulchral vault, and that over the sepulchral vault was a chapel in which canons celebrated mass. The belfry of St. Michael, of the same town, which has a sepulchral vault at its base, and which is of the fifteenth century (1480), has been perhaps also built over some sepulchral vault; it is detached from the church, and is in the midst of a plot of ground which formed the ancient cemetery. De Caumont then describes one of the towers at Antigny, near St. Savin, department of Vienne: ‘It is in the middle of. a square before the parish church, which evidently formed part of the ancient cemetery, for it is almost completely paved with tombstones. Four square windows, turned towards the east, west, north, and south, open, under its roof, at the summit of the tower; it was there the light was placed: the door was at some distance from the ground.’ He then mentions others :—‘ The fanal of Fenioux is in the ceme- tery of the village, at a hundred paces from the church, opposite the south door. The fanal of Estrés occupies nearly the centre of a large plot of ground, to the south of which is the ancient road from Buzancais to Pal- Mic luan, and to the north of which are the re- mains of the parish church of Estrés, a build- ing of the eleventh century, the choir of which is still remaining. This plot of ground was formerly the burial-ground of the parish. This tower is built on an octagonal basement ; its height is 8 metres 30 c. The fanal of Cirou is 150 metres from the church of the village, and, like that of Estrés, is in the centre of Cemetery Tower at Estrés (Indre). 4 vast cemetery. The fanal of Terigny 1'E- veque was also in a cemetery, about 300 paces from the church, near which passed the ancient road, which, according to M. Damazy, was the ancient way which led from Mans to the Roman camp at Song’. It is terminated by a conical roof; its four windows are towards the four cardinal points; its height is 11 metres 70 cent.’ He adds, ‘I could also mention several Section at E F. 1863.] Irish Round Towers. 543 towers pointed out by different authors, which ought to be assigned to this class of building which I have pointed out.’ “This description, it must be®allowed, bears a very striking resemblance to everything that is characteristic of the round towers, and would, I think, lead to the conviction that there must be a connecting link between the fanaux and the round towers in their almost identity of purpose. They were both used for sepulchral purposes ; they were erected as memorials of the dead in cemeteries; they were placed in churchyards unsymmetrically, at some little distance from the churches; they were built in much-frequented places, such as Clonmacnoise, Glendalough ; their four windows at the summit face the four cardinal points; they are also of the same period, the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and never later than the thirteenth ; finally, there is a tradition they were used as beacons. I cannot but think that there is a similarity in principle, as well as in form ; for we find in the dark ages the same customs were practised in different countries ; for the early Christians, particularly those who were converted from paganism, frequently adopted and introduced, as has been the case in Italy, pagan customs and practices into the Christian religion; and it would be but natural to suppose that the custom of lighting a lamp in a tower in honour of the dead (for this was @ pagan custom) was imported into Ireland from France ; and, as Dr. Petrie argues with regard to the use of lime cement in religious edifices, a know- ledge of this custom may have been imparted by the crowds of foreign eccle- siastics who flocked to Ireland as a place of refuge in the fifth and sixth centuries. We know that St. Patrick was a Frenchman, and was educated in France; a great number of St. Patrick’s disciples were also foreigners. St. Declan, who it is said built the tower at Ardmore, travelled to Italy. St. Columbanus also travelled in France. Vergilius, in the eighth century, was born in Ireland, and, like most of his countrymen at that period who were distinguished for learning, left his own country and passed into France. St. Malachy consecrated several cemeteries, and rebuilt several structures, ‘post ejus reditum e locis transmarinis.’ In fine, there was in the early periods a constant intercommunication between Ireland and France, par- ticularly with regard to religious dogmas and practices.” —(pp. 1—3.) Mr. Westropp goes on to shew that sepulchral chapels and crosses in churchyards are closely connected with the same subject. This hardly requires proof, and while we cordially agree with Mr. Westropp, it seems unnecessary to extract any more of his valuable paper, which those who are interested in the subject can readily obtain for themselves, as we recommend them to do. Mr. Brash’s view is altogether opposite to Mr. Westropp’s ; he still adheres vigorously to the wild Irish dreams of the last century, and hits hard at his opponents right and left, just as if he had a trusty shillelagh in his hand and was engaged in a regular Irish row at Ballinasloe fair. He begins by smashing Mr. Black for some errors in measurement, and shews that the actual height of the round tower of Brechin is 85 feet, and 544 Irish Round Towers. [May, that it does not lean over as stated by Mr. Black, but is per- fectly vertical, and very well built. But as we have no wish to take part in the row, we decline to follow him in this part of his work, and content ourselves with endeavouring to extract the few grains of fact from the quantity of chaff. Mr. Brash goes in for the whole pagan theory, and a degree of antiquity so remote that it is lost in the clouds; and for the urn burial theory: however, only one instance is adduced of an urn being found, and this appears only to prove that the round tower was erected in an ancient cemetery, without proving anything as to the antiquity of the round tower itself. With the infor- mation we at present possess, it is impossible to say at what period the building of round towers began, but it is quite clear that they continued to be built down to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, when their place was supplied by the equally tall square towers of the fourteenth and fifteenth, to which comparatively little attention has been given, but which are just as peculiarly Irish as the round towers. This change of fashion may fairly be attributed to the fact that by that time the Irish masons had become habituated to the use of squared stones, which they clearly were not in the time of Archbishop Malachi in the twelfth century, according to the testimony of St. Bernard in his Life of his friend and early companion. When masons had to build of rough stones or of flints, as in Norfolk and Suffolk, the corners were a great diffi- culty to them; quoins require squared stones, and in some districts it is very difficult to get stone that can be cut into square blocks, such stone having to be brought from long dis- tances; or if the hard limestone of Ireland had to be squared, it required very skilful workmen and very superior tools to cut it. In the thirteenth century this art began to be acquired in Ireland, but not before; the only examples of cut stone in the twelfth century in Ireland, such as Cormac’s chapel, are in those places where soft stone could be procured ; but over the greater part of the surface of Ireland the limestone is as hard as the flints of Norfolk, and therefore the necessity of quoins was avoided by the simple expedient of building the towers round. If the Irish antiquaries would supply the incredulous Saxons with better accounts of the building materials used, and photographs shewing the mode of construction and the thickness of mortar between the stones, they would do far 1863.] Irish Round Towers. 545 more service to the cause of historical truth than they ever will do by their wild fanciful theories. Mr. Brash as an architect ought to be ashamed of the ignorance he displays on the his- tory of his own art. The only person who has thrown any real light on the history of architecture in Ireland is Mr. Wilkinson, in his “‘ Geology and Architecture of Ireland ;” he at least saw what was wanted. To do Mr. Brash justice, how- ever, he does establish the sepulchral character of the Irish round towers, but as they have long been known to be almost always built in cemeteries, there is nothing surprising in this, and nothing inconsistent with Mr. Westropp’s theory that they were used also as lanternes des morts, nor with their having a bell in the upper story. Churchyard crosses were used as preaching places, and sepulchral towers may very well have been used for other purposes also. Mr. Brash’s paper is nominally on the “ Round Tower of Brechin,” but the greater part of it relates to the round towers of Ireland. The Brechin tower appears to be built in one of those districts where the stone naturally splits into large masses, and where the buildings are therefore erected of large stones, and are called by the absurd name of “Cyclopean masonry.” It is not clear whether it was originally built without mortar, but it is stated that the joints between the stones are very large, and have been filled up with modern cement in order to destroy utterly its historical character :— “The round tower immediately adjoins the south-west angle of the nave of the cathedral, a portion of its circular wall being incorporated with it. It presents to the beholder a circular tapering pillar, of large irregular blocks of a hard reddish-grey sandstone, crowned with a roof or spirelet octagonal on plan. The masonry is of admirable character, the surface of the stones truly worked to the curve of the tower. The material seems to have been care- fully selected, as the surface is not much weather-worn, while the stone-work of the west end of the cathedral adjoining is considerably disintegrated and eaten away, though not so old, certainly, by several centuries.”—(p. 1.) “The stones in the base of this tower are of large size ; they are inlocked into each other in several places, as is observable in almost every example of Irish towers. The joints of the masonry have been pointed with cement, which gives the work a comparatively smooth and fresh appearance. Before pointing it must have had a very ancient and time-worn look ; the breadth of pointing in the joints indicates that the arrises of the stone were much weather-worn.”—(p. 4.) “In its dimensions and proportion, it bears a close resemblance to the round tower at Clondalkin, county Dublin ; both are 85 feet high to eaves ; thickness of wall at door sill, Brechin, 3 feet 10 inches—Clondalkin, same ; 546 Irish Round Towers. [May, thickness of wall at attic windows, Brechin, 2 feet 10 inches—Clondalkin, 2 feet 8 inches; internal diameter at door sill, Brechin, 7 feet 9 inches— Clondalkin, 7 feet 4 inches; internal diameter at attic storey, Brechin, 6 feet 7 inches—Clondalkin, 6 feet 6 inches. This identity of dimensions gives the towers an identity of proportion and symmetry truly startling; and when we follow out the analogy, and find that both towers have string- courses of the same form, that the attic windows of both are quadrangular, that in fact all the openings in both structures are of the same form, the door of Brechin only excepted,—and if the latter is an insertion, as I believe it to be, the probability is that even these were alike,—surely the above coincidences are too remarkable to be the result of mere chance ; they are startling facts, which give us grounds for asserting that they are kindred structures, erected about the same era, according to the same design and proportions, by the same race, and for the same uses. The external masonry of Brechin tower is of much similar character to that in the round tower at Oran, county Roscommon, and in the basements of the towers at Kildare, Kilmacduagh, and Kilalla. The dimensions of the tower at Tulloherin, county of Kilkenny, very closely coincide with those of the tower of Brechin ; the heights, internal dimensions, and thickness of walling are the same. “The most remarkable feature in the Brechin example is the doorway, the sculptured decorations of which have excited much attention, as stamp- ing a Christian character on this tower, it being one of the three upon which such emblems are found, and one of five whose sculptured details are sup- posed to be of early medieval date.”—(pp. 7, 8.) Mr. Brash proceeds to argue in a very unsatisfactory manner against this Christian character. He does not seem to know that in some instances at least the worked stone doorways and the sculptures are insertions of much later date than the rest of the masonry ; but as finely worked stone, and especially carved stone, is far more likely to be of the thirteenth or fourteenth century than of the eleventh, it is very probable that the ori- ginal structure may be of that period, and the doorway inserted two-or three centuries afterwards. The “converging jambs” on which he lays so much stress are merely an Irish provincialism, which continued in use as late as the seventeenth century, as at Galway, and is used in the Norman castles in Ireland just as much as in the round towers :— “We have one fact certain, that the tower was in existence in a.p. 1012, and was then looked upon as being constructed with wonderful art, a mode of expression usually adopted towards any building of considerable antiquity, and that has successfully resisted the ravages of time.”—(p. 13.) It would be more honest and far more satisfactory to quote the exact words of the contemporary author, Hector Boece, and give the whole passage, not merely a few words out of it. 1863.] Irish Round Towers. 547 The words of ancient authors have so often been misunder- stood and misapplied, that second-hand quotations are very un- satisfactory :— “The present trim appearance of Brechin tower may, in the opinion of some, militate against the great antiquity I would be disposed to assign to it; but let it be remembered, that it has not long since been pointed with cement, and every joint and crevice carefully filled, which now gives the whole a smooth and uniform appearance.”—(pp. 13, 14.) “TI have in my paper on Abernethy tower alluded to the sepulchral re- mains found therein, as well as in many of the round towers of Ireland ; and I consider that I am perfectly justified, from the amount of evidence obtained in the course of the excavations made in those which have been already examined, in entertaining the theory of the sepulchral uses of those ancient structures. The idea, originally suggested by the talented though visionary Edward O’Brien, was adopted by the South Munster Society of Antiquaries, who determined practically to test its accuracy, by excavating the interiors of these edifices. The fact of the elevation of the doors from the ground levels suggested to them where they were to make these explorations; they surmised that the height of these entrances from the ground was owing to the retention of the basement storeys for the purposes of sepulture.”—(p. 14.) A number of these excavations are then recorded, which do, as we have said, establish the sepulchral character of some of these towers; but as in other instances the walls are built across skeletons without the slightest regard being paid to them, as shewn by Dr. Petrie, the fact is also established that they were built in ancient cemeteries. The carelessness of the medizval builders about their foundations is notorious, and no inference can be drawn from this well-known practice. The fact of concrete floors being found within nearly all the towers that have been examined, and generally skeletons under those concrete floors, cannot be accidental :— “TI state these minute particulars to shew that Dr. Petrie’s objection, namely, that the towers were built in cemeteries, and the bodies accidentally enclosed in laying their foundations, meets in the above instances a most palpable refutation, the entombments in both cases being the results of most careful forethought and preparation. The entire depth excavated in this in- stance was thirteen feet below the sill of doorway.”—(p. 16.) “Tory Island tower, county of Down, was examined on 7th and 8th August 1845. Under the /ime concrete floor was found another of large blocks of stone, laid without order. Between the two floors was found a fragment of a sepulchral vase. The stone flooring or pavement was removed, beneath which was found some pieces of querns, but no further indications of human remains.” —(p. 19.) At Kilkenny, “beneath this pavement was found a complete skeleton, in the very centre of the tower. At one side, and parallel to it, were the remains of two children enclosed in one oak coffin, put together without 548 Irish Round Towers. [May, nails or metal fastenings. At the foot of this coffin was the skull and por- tions of the skeleton of an adult, the lower extremities of which were covered by the foundation of the structure. The oak composing the coffin was soft and pulpy, and had almost lost its character as wood.” —(p. 19.) Door 3.4 9.0 3.4 Level Lime Concrete be ™ Line Section of Basement of Ardmore Tower. Door 3.7 ‘ -7 Level ee ———$$—$—$— ——=—— 2.6 : ; ‘ i 4.81.9 1.4 2.0 Ground Section of Basement of Cloyne Tower. We have been favoured by Mr. Gordon Hills with an oppor- tunity of inspecting his very remarkable and valuable series of drawings and sections of att the round towers in Ireland, sixty-three in number, which we sincerely hope he will be enabled to publish. He has also kindly supplied us with much valuable information respecting the building materials, and the mode of construction employed in each. From these data it is evident that they extend over a long period of time, as we had previously concluded from personal observation, though without the advantage of these extensive and complete data. Whether any of these are earlier than the beginning of the eleventh century remains an open question, of which it is not easy to bring positive proofs on either side. But that many belong to the twelfth, and some even to the thirteenth, appears to be proved to demonstration. For instance, in the round tower of Finghin’s Church, at Clonmacnoise, the mouldings of 1 1863.] Irish Round Towers. 549 the chancel-arch are distinctly of the usual character of the twelfth century, and are cut on the same pieces of stone which form part of the round tower itself; there is no possibility of insertion or alteration here, as is said to be the case in some other instances. MODCRN mARsis. J CHANCEL. SSS ~ SSSS SS VERQN ie ‘L004 VOL HONIt Tiv9s Plan of Jamb of Chancel-arch, and part of Round Tower, Finghin’s Church, Clonmacnoise, (shewing Norman mouldings cut on the same stone which forms part of the original construction). The round towers of Ireland may be thus classed, according to the materials of which they are built :— 32 limestone. 18 sandstone. 5 slate rock. 4 granite. 3 basaltic whinstone. 1 metamorphic rock. 63 The mode of construction, and therefore the appearance of the building, must necessarily be influenced considerably by the materials; and some may appear far more ancient than others, without really being so. One thing is very remarkable, that in no single instance is the tower built of the earliest kind of construction, that is, of rough stones ranged together with- out mortar. In every one of these towers lime mortar is used ; the use of lime is always admitted to be a proof of some degree of progress in civilization, mere savages do not burn stone into lime to make mortar; therefore the Irish round towers do not belong to the same primitive period as the cromlechs. Gent. Mac. Vor. CCXIV. 3U 550 Trish Round Towers. [May, To proceed with our analysis from the complete data supplied by Mr. Gordon Hills. Of the 32 limestone towers,— 17 are of the rude rubble character usual in the eleventh cen- tury, and some of them may possibly be earlier. 14 have the usual characteristics of the twelfth century. 1 appears to be of the thirteenth century. 32 Of the 18 sandstone towers,— 4 are of rubble, and probably of the eleventh century. 12 appear to be of the twelfth century, and of these eight are of ashlar masonry (or cut stone), and two of them are fine- jointed, indicating a later date than the others. 2 appear to be of the thirteenth century. 18 Sandstone is so much more easily worked than the hard limestone of Ireland, that it is quite natural to expect a larger proportion of these to appear of later date, and it by no means follows that the corresponding limestone buildings which ap- pear so much earlier are really so. The fact that in some in- stances the hard limestone is regularly cut and squared into good ashlar masonry, and even carved, as at Clonmacnoise, is far more important, as these arts were not acquired before the twelfth century either in England or France. In one instance only does the long-and-short work occur in Ireland which was so characteristic of English work of the first half of the eleventh century. In one instance the materials are mixed, limestone, granite, and sandstone, all cut to a smooth face, but not re- gular ashlar; this mixture of materials of course arises from the situation, and proves nothing as to the date. In general, rubble and random courses would indicate the first half of the eleventh century, regular courses the second half and the be- ginning of the twelfth, and ashlar the middle and latter half of the twelfth. The 5 of slate rock are of course of rubble, or hammer- dressed only; it is not practicable to cut that material into regular ashlar, therefore these prove nothing as to date. Of the 4 of granite mixed with limestone in random courses and hammer-dressed only, one is mixed with whinstone boulders in courses, and the fourth is almost entirely of boulders. These 1863.] Irish Round Towers. 551 materials obviously did not admit of being worked into regular ashlar masonry at any period, and are just as likely to be late as early. In all countries, granite buildings of the sixteenth or seventeenth century look very much like those of the eleventh or twelfth, and a little imagination can construe them into any age. The 3 of basaltic whinstone have the construction still more decidedly governed by the material at any period, and there- fore no conclusion can be drawn from them. One of these is mixed with porphyry in boulders, not admitting of any regular construction. The 1 of metamorphic rock is also necessarily of rubble. The only material among all these which really admits of being worked in a regular manner is the sandstone, and these are just the examples which appear to be the latest. Throughout the Middle Ages everywhere the materials of the country were those commonly employed, because they were the cheapest and saved the cost of carriage, except in a few instances, where the material of the country was so hard and difficult to work that less labour was required to bring a better material some miles than to dig and work the hard stone on the spot. This was especially the case at Cashel, and there it is evident that the quantity of sandstone brought was not suffi- cient to complete the belfry as well as the chapel, and the de- ficiency was made good with the hard limestone found on the spot. The round tower on St. Patrick’s Isle, within the walls of Peel Castle in the Isle of Man, is thus described by Mr. Petit :— “On the highest part of the island, not far from its centre, stands a round tower, of the same character with those peculiar to Ireland. Like them it has a door at some distance from the ground, and wider at the bottom than at the spring of the arch. There are also four square-headed openings near the top, and another lower down. The material of this tower is principally red — sand-stone, laid in pretty regular courses of thin but long or wide blocks; the jointing is wide, and filled with a hard coarse mortar, which has been less acted upon by the atmosphere than the stone itself.” Masonry of taken at the door. This description agrees perfectly with the usual character of buildings of the eleventh century, and the small church or 552 Irish Round Towers. [May, oratory to which it is attached may very well be of the same period. - FF 50, 55 ae he Round Tower on St. Patrick’s Isle, in Peel Castle, Isle of Man. ej The parapet at the top seems very well calculated for the erection of a beacon, if there is any access to it, which is not stated. Toe Lapy-cHaPeL, CuEsteR CATHEDRAL.—The important work which has now for several —_ been going on in the Lady-chapel of our Cathedral affords a striking example of the way in which church restoration grows when once set on foot. The first proposal was to colour the Lady-chapel; the colouring became the parent of other improvements; the side openings in the middle bay were filled with triplets. Ere long, the Perpendicular east window, at the end of an Early English building, became such an eyesore that the Dean and Chapter determined to replace it by five lancets, such as had evidently been the original design. Thus the chapel appears, with some exceptions, as it came forth from the builder’s hands between five and six hundred years ago. The decoration of the interior, and especially of the roof which has lately been completed, is a beautiful work of art. The decoration is partly original, partly a restoration; the colouring of the groins, shafts, capitals, &., being the same as what was brought to light by the removal of plaster and whitewash, while the medallions on the spaces or panels between the groinings are entirely Mr. Hudson’s own, and the tone of colouring, as well as the treatment of the various subjects, is appropriate to the date of the building. The larger medallions, which lie nearest the longituditial rib running along the highest pitch of the roof from end to end, are twelve in number, and form a series, representing the chief events connected with the birth and death of our blessed Redeemer. The medallions next in size also are twelve in number. In the western and middle bays we have respectively the four greater Prophets and the four Evangelists—the first representing to us the evidence of prophecy, the second the evidence of eye-witnesses to the truth of God. In the eastern bay are the four Fathers or Doctors of the Church—St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and St.Gregory. Besides these there are many smaller medallions, some of angels with scrolls, and others heads of holy men and women.—Chester Courant. 1863.] COMTE DE VOGUE ON THE HOLY PLACES AT JERUSALEM *. How seldom is it that we know our best friends. Of all men in the world James Fergusson is perhaps the most unpopular with steady-going archeologists and biblical students; for one fine morning some fifteen years ago, he woke up and discovered that the sites which, from the times of the Crusades, universal Christendom had agreed in believing to be those of the Passion of our blessed Lord, were all wrong; and that they were to be - sought for on quite the opposite side of the city. Just the same, indeed, as if he had asserted the site of the church built by Eadward the Confessor to be on the top of Ludgate-hill, and not near Westminster Bridge. Of course, in this instance, we very well know to the contrary; but then London has not been destroyed two or three times over, like Jerusalem; and although the foundations of old St. Paul’s have been grubbed up to build the present cathedral, still enough of Eadward’s work remains at Westminster to enable us to identify the site even had we not a long series of documentary evidence. It is needless to say that no one likes to have his convictions dis- turbed, more especially when they happen to be those univer- sally adopted for the last eight hundred years, and accordingly Mr. Fergusson’s discovery was by no means received with the enthusiasm he expected, and people were very much more dis- posed to ignore the matter than to seriously set to work to answer it; just in the same manner as a certain bishop of our day is prohibited from preaching, instead of being answered in a scholarly manner, as he would have been in the days of Usher or Jewel. In the meanwhile, both the bishop and Mr. Fer- gusson are in their way useful members of the community, for without being right themselves, they will have caused an increased amount of study and criticism on the subjects they have taken up; and therefore we shall all be the gainers in the end. Thus Mr. Fergusson’s book has been followed by other works, by Robinson, Barclay, Williams and Willis, * “Les Eglises de la Terre Sainte. Par Le Comte Melchoir de Vogiié.” (Paris: Didron. 1860.) 554 Comte de Vogue on [May, Comte de Vogiié, Lewin, &c.; and if it were possible to make a properly conducted series of excavations, we might probably be enabled to obtain a clear solution of the question’. Un- fortunately this at present is impossible, although of late years Mohammedan fanaticism has so far been mitigated as to allow Christians to be admitted to the Haram area and the Dome of the Rock, from which they were formerly excluded. The weak point of Mr. Fergusson’s theory is best given in his own words, from his pamphlet of 1861 °:— “ When the Christians were expelled from their churches and the city in the beginning of the century (by El Hakim), and afterwards crept back as tolerated ‘exiles, they built about the year 1048 a church of the Holy Sepulchre in their own quarter of the town. There was no more fraud in this than in building one in Cambridge or in London. It was their duty and business to do so. The mistake was that fifty years afterwards, when the Crusaders re- turned, the successors of those who built the new church had not the courage to say, 7his is the simulated, ¢/a¢ the true sepulchre of Christ. Men were not so critical in those days as they are now, and one sepulchre in Jerusalem excited devotion just as much as another.” It is needless to say that M. de Vogiié does not take Mr. Fergusson’s view of the matter, but is a staunch advocate for the usual traditions. Leaving aside the Jerusalem of Solomon and Josephus, he confines himself solely to the Jerusalem of the Crusades, and has succeeded in making not only a most interesting work, but in adding another chapter to the great book of twelfth and thirteenth century art, shewing the architect how to adapt the most severe architecture to the necessities of a burning climate, and to a country where the almost total want of wood entailed the necessity of flat roofs. Yet the architecture does not appear to have suffered from these dis- advantages, and the church of the Holy Sepulchre, when decorated with its mosaics, of which there are even now one or two small remains, must have equalled, if not surpassed, the Capella Reale at Palermo, or the Cathedral at Monreale. The fact is that the architects were imported from France, and, like sensible men, made the very best use of the materials and work- men they found to hand. Thus the carving was done by native artists, and presents an evident imitation of classic work: such > This has been done by Signor Pierotti, though the account of his discoveries has not yet been published.—Ep. © “Notes on the Site of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem: an Answer to the ‘Edinburgh Review.’ By James Fergusson, F.R.I.B.A., &.” (London: Murray. 1861.) 1863.] the Holy Places at Ferusalem. 555 is also often the case with the mouldings. On the other hand, our author thinks the two carved lintels at the entrances of the church of the Holy Sepulchre were sculptured in France, and sent from thence. The peculiar archivolt, like a quantity of small tiles, which occurs in the same doorways, is found in many Arab edifices, and, curiously enough, in the south of France. The question naturally arises to whom does it belong—to the French, or the Arabs, or was it an invention of the Crusaders? As before observed, our architect had little wood at his disposal, so he filled in his groining solid, and finished his building with a flat terrace, or occasionally with a dome; and for ornament he had the best and most lasting decoration, namely, mosaics ex- ecuted by Byzantine workmen. Time and violence have de- stroyed most of the ornaments, and very many of the churches, but still sufficient remains to shew us that the Jerusalem of the latter half of the twelfth century must indeed have been a noble city, and worthy of the holy and touching remembrances for ever corinected with it. The first church described in the present work is that built at Bethlehem over the grotto of the Nativity, and which M. de Vogiié attributes to Constantine. It consists of an atrium (now in ruins), a triple vestibule, a nave with double north and south aisles, transepts and choir with apsidal ends and side aisles. Underneath the choir is the grotto of the Nativity, the manger, and several other historical sites, e. g. the cell where St. Jerome spent thirty-six years of his life. The drawings shew us forty-six monolithic Corinthian columns sup- porting flat architraves. Above is an unpierced triforium, if such a term be allowed, and over it a clerestory with small round-headed windows. The roof itself is a very plain open- timbered affair, and was put up at the end of the seventeenth century, supplying the place of a former one to which Philip le Bon of Burgundy contributed the funds and Edward IV. of England the lead. The walls of the aisles appear to have been covered with a placage of marble, whether ancient or not it is impossible to say, for all vestiges of it have disappeared. But the great ornaments of the church were the mosaics on a gold ground, which covered the triforium space, the clerestory, the choir, and the transepts. Of the former very considerable por- tions remain, enough indeed to enable us to make out the design. Immediately above the architraves of the columns ran 556 Comte de Vogue on [May, a row of nimbed busts representing the ancestors of our Lord, their names being written in Latin. The space above was occupied by alternate arabesques and buildings, the latter containing altars and résumés of the various general councils written in Greek. Above all, and between the windows of the clerestory, were large figures of angels. The other parts of the building appear to have been covered with Scripture sub- jects, of which portions remain of the Entry into Jerusalem, the Transfiguration, the Incredulity of St. Thomas, and the Ascension. The annexed woodcut shews the curious mixture of SS 2. = 6 ok ot ek ck ce round and pointed arches in the background of the Incredulity of St. Thomas. On the right hand are the closed doors which formerly had the inscription 1anvis cLavsis. The second cut HC TENG OHTORAPONCPLONATAXAPOCEPPEINIAHGSP Bunn CTITACBAGIAGIACMABHARE ARS BACTAGS TOP $Y POreN AKALTLTACEMEPAC She TNOV PHT OCE POCONY iii gives us part of a long bilingual inscription, still to be found, although considerably mutilated, in the choir apse. Luckily Quaresmius copied it when it was complete, and from it we learn that, “The present work was finished by the hand of Ephrem, painter and mosaicist, in the reign of the Emperor Manuel Porphyrogenitus Comnenus, and in the days of the great King of Jerusalem, the Lord Amaury, and of the very holy Bishop of the holy Bethlehem, the Lord Raoul, in the year 6677, Indiction 2.” As the Greek computation places the birth of our Lord in the 2 1863. ] the Holy Places at Ferusalem. 557 year of the world 5508, this makes the date of the work 1169 of our era. The inscription, besides the date, also affords us the key to the many iconographical anomalies to be found in these mosaics; thus the nimbi given to the ancestors of our Lord, the occurrence of only one sibyl in the Radix Jesse, the ara- besques, the ornaments of altars under the decrees of the councils, and the decrees themselves, are all Greek ; whereas the large angels with naked feet in the clerestory, and at least one- half the inscriptions, to say nothing of the pointed arch, belong to Latin art. The church of Bethlehem has always been a for- tunate church. It appears to have escaped successfully from the hands of Chosroes, E] Hakim, and the defenders of Jeru- salem in the first crusade, when all the other churches in the vicinity of the city were destroyed. At the end of the thir- teenth century it was still perfect, and astonished by its exceed- ing magnificence the Monk Brocardus, who relates the particulars of the miraculous escape it had had from the avarice of the Sultan of Egypt, who wanted to take away the marbles and columns for his palace at Cairo. It appears to have remained tolerably perfect until the repair of the roof in 1478. At the end of the sixteenth century we learn from Quaresmius and others that some of the mosaics had disappeared, and that the marble covering of the aisle walls had been removed to enrich the great mosque at Jerusalem. At the end of the seven- teenth century the Turks having found the lead contributed by Edward IV. exceedingly useful for bullets, had carried portions of it away, and the roof consequently having got into bad repair, was reconstructed, and a general restoration took place at the expense of the Greeks, who had about that time (1672) managed to get possession of the church. They had no sooner done it than the treaty of 1690 restored it to the Latins (French), but in 1758 the Greeks were reinstated, to the great chagrin of M. de Vogiié, who thereupon devotes a whole page to the wickedness of the Greeks, the wrongs of the Latins, and the insolence of the Turks. As might naturally be expected, the history of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre takes up no small portion of the present work, and most excellently has M. de Vogiié traced the history of the building from the time of Constantine to the present day. According to him we have still nearly all the great church built by the Crusaders, only it is enclosed and dis- Gent, Mac. Vor. CCXIV. 3X Comte de Vogue on [May, 558 figured by the wretched repairs made by the Greeks after the fire of 1808. The account begins with a slight notice of “la theorie audacieuse” of Mr. Fergusson, which is thus touched off in a note: “ Quoiqué par l’eccentricité des conjectures et le ton de la discussion, cette theorie soit de celles qu’on ne refute pas,” &c. Now the way to dispose of an adversary is to con- fute him fairly; but to pass by him in this manner, is to leave an impression that he cannot be answered. There is hardly any one who takes an interest in the matter but would wish it to be clearly established that the place where so many gene- rations of Christians have prayed and wept should really turn out to be the sepulchre of our Lord; but a doubt has been raised, and until that doubt shall have been clearly set at rest it will always have some amount of force with certain people; and M. de Vogiié, as a man of the world, ought to know that a refu- tation is never effected by calling hard names, and might have followed the Rev. G. Williams’s example, who takes very great pains to prove Mr. Fergusson in the wrong, both as regards history and the actual sites. This course was the more to be desired on M. de Vogiié’s part, as his work is likely to be the sontinental text-book on the subject. However, this is almost the only point on which one feels inclined to attach any amount of blame to the present work, more especially when we see how much the author must have had his heart in his subject, and how hard he must have worked to have produced what we see. He takes for the foundation of his theory Pro- fessor Willis’s excellent chapter to the Rev. George Williams’s work on Jerusalem, where the Professor, with his usual acumen, suggests that Constantine might have cut away the rock all round the sepulchre, leaving it as a monument in the middle of his basilica. Starting from this, M. de Vogiié reconstructs the basilica of Constantine. Eusebius, it is well known, has given a long description of the splendid church erected over the holy sepulchre, but unfortunately he has so indulged in the “ choice flowers of rhetoric,” that it is in parts exceedingly difficult to make out what he actually does mean. According to M. de Vogiié, who here differs considerably from Professor Willis, the church was a double-aisled basilica, with an atrium at the east end, and an apsidal western termination, from which latter pro- jected three smaller apsidal recesses, viz. to the west, north, and south; and this apsidal wall, with its three smaller apses, both 1863.] the Holy Places at Ferusalem. 559 authors agree, has continued to form a portion of all the succeed- ing churches, the present one included. In the centre of the apse was the detached rock containing the sepulchre; in the south aisle rose up the rock of Calvary ; and in the atrium the cistern where St. Helena found the three crosses. In 614 the army of Chosroes destroyed the magnificent building of Constantine, which was afterwards replaced by a number of small erections, executed under the direction of Modestus: these, again, were levelled, and the rock of the sepulchre partly destroyed (1010) by the madman El Hakim, who finished by expelling the Christians from the holy city. Again, these small chapels were reconstructed by the liberality of the Byzantine emperors, and it was in this state that they passed into the hands of the Crusaders, who once more connected the various sites under one roof. The restoration of the Crusaders’ church in the pre- sent work differs in some respects from that given by Professor Willis in his chapter to the Rev. G. Williams’s work ; but still these differences are not very great, and shew how much we owe to our accomplished countryman. After the fire of 1808, the Greek architect appears to have enclosed the old con- struction in a new casing instead of destroying it; but so great is the alteration, that no one at first sight would be inclined to suspect that an excellent French twelfth-century church lies hidden beneath the heavy rococo modern architecture. The above Byzantine capital is a fragment of the re- building after the persecution of El Hakim; while the next 560 Comte de Vogue on [May, cut shews us the outside form of the sepulchre itself, such as it was restored in 1555, and such as it was before the great fire of 1808. All these successive changes are illustrated by an immense amount of documentary evidence, the most curious of which is the well-known description of Arculphus. M. de Vogiié has discovered another version of his plan in the Bibliothéque Im- ~ periale MS., Lat. 2,821, which is here given. On the spots marked by the letters are the following legends in the origi- nal—A Ecclesia Anastasis id est “esurrectio; aaa Altare; B Monumentum Domini; C Golgothana Ecclesia; D Constan- tiniana ecclesia ubi crux Domini inventa est ; E Ecclesia Sancte Dei Genitricis; F Occidens. 1863.] the Holy Places at Ferusalem. 561 As to the modern casing, which M. de Vogiié says was most unnecessarily added by the Greeks, no words can express its intense bad taste and ugliness. Could the various Christian Churches be got to agree among themselves for a little while, perhaps the most excellent act Louis Napoleon could do would be to send some first-rate French architect to restore the church and the holy sepulchre to the state they were in when Saladin expelled the Crusaders. The church of St. Anne, at the north-east angle of Jeru- salem, is an excellent illustration of the common type of the Crusaders’ churches. The plan consists of nave, aisles, tran- septs in a line with the aisles, and three apses semicircular within and demioctagonal outside. Over the intersection of the nave and transepts is a low story, from which rises a dome. The nave proper has but three bays, the westernmost being much plainer than the others. On looking at the section we behold a French church of the plainest possible type; the piers are compound it is true, but all the members are rectangular ; so also are the edges of the arches. There are no mould- ings to speak of; the stringcourses are, however, moulded, and one at the west end is even carved with the Classical egg and tongue and the Norman billet-mould in most amicable juxtaposition. What little ornament the architect had to dispose of, is lavished on the upper window of the west end, which has columns with carved caps supporting the tile-mould- ing, surrounded by a dripstone most elaborately decorated with acanthus leaves. The groining is plain quadripartite, and as the aisle-roof is quite flat, there is no use for a triforium, which is therefore omitted. The next chapter treats of the celebrated Hospital, of which sufficient ruins still remain to enable M. de Vogiié to give us a restored groundplan of the church, cloisters, &c., the former of which appears to have been very like that of St. Anne just mentioned : the details, however, were much richer, the piers being decorated with columns, &c., while the northern entrance, which still remains, presents us with the twelve labours of the year sculptured on the dripstone. The tympanum also had a sculptured subject, but the removal of the centre column (for the doorway was double) has entailed the destruction of so much as to render it impossible to make out the intention of the artist. 562 Comte de Vogue on [May, An account of the Dome of the Rock and the mosque of El Aksa next follows. Here the usual traditions are again fol- lowed, the former being identified with the site of the Temple, and the latter with the remains of the Mary Church erected by Justinian. As to the Dome of the Rock, the architecture is attributed to Greek artists employed by the Arabs in 688, and the hole in the rock is identified with the sewer from the outer altar of the Temple. Representations of some of the more curious of the moneys of the Latin kings are also given, viz. one of Baldwin IV., shewing the tower of David, the donjon of the feudal Jeru- salem; one of John de Brienne, with an edifice the roof of which is truncated: this is evidently the church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is again shewn in the accompanying seal of the Canons attached to it. The seal, however, not only Os, —> Seal of the Canons of the Holy Sepulchre. gives the church, but presents us with the holy sepulchre in- side, shewing the Jocu/us where our Lord was laid, and the small spire which crowned the cave. A third coin belongs to Guy of Lusignan; on the obverse is the Temple, which is again represented on the seal of Amaury I., in connexion with the tower of David and the holy sepulchre. It would require a very considerable space to enter into even a short description of the many other subjects touched upon by M. de Vogiié in his very clever and interesting work, and we leave them the more willingly as they may be supposed to be but short hints of the subjects to be treated in the larger work which re- port asserts that gentleman is now engaged upon ; in the mean- the Holy Places at Ferusalem. 1863.] 563 while it may be sufficient to say that the seventh chapter is occu- pied with an account of the lesser churches of Jerusalem, and of the various sites in the Via Dolorosa. The succeeding chapter treats of the churches and tombs situated outside the walls, such as the tomb of the Virgin, the grotto of the Agony, the church of the Ascension, the Coenaculum, the houses of Caiaphas and Annas, &c. ; while the rest of the book gives us short pieces of information respecting the environs of Jerusalem, the towns of Galilee and Samaria, those on the seashore, such as Acre, Tyre, Ramleh, Lydda, and finishes with a few words on the edifices of Cyprus and Rhodes. Such are the contents of a work interesting to the antiquary and biblical student, as a painstaking account of the most ven- erated Christian monuments, but still more valuable to the architect as shewing how his predecessors of the twelfth cen- tury went to work when they had to adapt their architecture to another climate, and under different conditions to those to which they had been accustomed. Had we followed their ex- ample of sound good sense in the works required in our Colo- nies and in India, we should never have seen such a monstrosity as Calcutta Cathedral, to say nothing of sundry Lincolnshire churches with their large windows and high roofs transplanted to the burning climate of India. Tue Royat Nationa Lirr-Boat In- STITUTION.—It may interest our readers to know that the life-boat that was doubt- less seen by many of them in the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at the time of the International Exhibition, and was afterwards carried in procession through London, is now actively em- ployed at Tynemouth. Its cost was de- frayed by Mr. George John Fenwick, of that port. Indeed, many of the So- ciety’s boats appear to have been pre- sented by individuals; this is a form of benevolence the wisdom of which can- not be questioned, and which is as little liable to abuse as any that can be conceived. Thus a boat provided by Miss Burdett Coutts appears at Ply- mouth, and another at Margate; a lady who had suffered shipwreck on the Irish coast gave £300 as “a thank-offering” for her deliverance; other ladies are mentioned as collecting £200 or £300 each; and another, whose name has not been revealed even to the Secretary, has contributed the cost of no less than four boats. General Sir G. Bowles has placed a life-boat at Howth; a Norwich lady has furnished one for Blakeney ; and a gentleman has promised not only to furnish a boat, but in addition to endow it permanently. Lastly, the sum of £500 was subscribed in the town of Ipswich, by which means a boat was provided that has since done good ser- vice on the exposed Suffolk coast. The Queen annually bestows £50, and the Society is also supported by many of limited means, as a yearly subscription of 5s. from “the child of an old sailor” is recorded, and a Kentish clergyman recently presented a song and duet entitled “The Life-boat,” by the sale of which he trusts to be able to supply another boat and transporting carriage. Every person must surely wish that such examples may become yet more numerous. ROMANO-BRITISH INSCRIPTIONS *. Tue study of ancient inscriptions is a branch of archeology the im- portance of which can hardly be over-estimated. Upon epigraphic literature depends much of the modern historian’s data and deductions ; and this is nowhere more clearly shewn than in Gibbon’s “ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” where the aid he obtained from lapidary inscriptions is continually manifested. On the other hand, the omission of this element in the education of a writer of history detracts from the value of his labours, as all must admit who inspect the works of some of our most popular historians, and find the events of the first four cen- turies scarcely touched upon; or, if glanced at, dismissed in a few pages. The materials for this study, which is worthy of being made part of our collegiate courses of education, are of great extent, especially when foreign collections are included; and there is no saying when a stone may not turn up in Spain, or in Algeria, or in any other country once a Roman province, freighted with words of precious import to some ob- scure point in Britanno-Roman history. Fortunately the large mass hitherto collected is being continually added to by fresh discoveries ; and in these new accessions are often the correctives of error as well as the confirmation of sound decision. In no department of arche- ology will error be more likely to creep in and rule for awhile than in that of inscriptions. It is almost impossible that it should be otherwise when the state in which they are often discovered, and the manner in which they are frequently presented to the student, are considered. It is seldom they have so far resisted the wear and tear of time as to be wholly perfect and legible ; and very often they baffle the interpretation of the most experienced owing to the dislocation of letters, words, and even entire lines. It is, moreover, very seldom that the most competent critics get access to the inscriptions themselves ; and copies, originally imperfect and erroneously read, often become more confused by suc- cessive transcripts and emendations—so much so, indeed, that it has not unfrequently happened that access to an original has enabled a prac- tised eye to detect some trivial misreading, a rectification of which has changed the entire character of the interpretation. It is therefore with pleasure we hail the accession of a man like the Rev. Dr. M° Caul to the little band of students of our Romano-British inscriptions, for he is particularly well qualified to aid their researches ; * “Britanno-Roman Inscriptions, with Critical Notes. By the Rev. John M‘Caul, LL.D., President of University College, Toronto, &.” (8vo. Toronto and London.) 3 1863.] Romano-British Inscriptions. 565 and he brings to the labour of love the essentials of patience, good scholarship, and an evident desire to promote knowledge, and, if pos- sible, attain truth. With such objects in view it is, to use his own words, “ of comparatively little consequence who is right or who is wrong.” And it may be safely asserted, from the spirit in which his criticisms are conducted, that no one feels more sensibly than Dr. M°Caul himself how much easier it is sometimes to detect error in the inter- pretations of others than to give original readings from defective in- scriptions which shall be wholly unobjectionable and impervious to adverse criticism. For the last five years Dr. M°Caul has been an occasional contributor to the “Canadian Journal” of articles on Latin Inscriptions found in Britain. He has now revised and arranged them into a volume, so that, probably for the first time, they will come before the antiquarian public of the mother country, and we hope their reception will encourage the learned epigraphist to continue his researches and criticisms. The inscription found at Chester in March, 1862, is among the first noticed, from the pages of the GrentiemaNn’s Magazine. The only question was the reading of mac. as Magister or as Magistratus, the latter being inclined to by some of the Chester Archeological Society. Dr. M°Caul does not hesitate in reading Magister ; and so, it appears, Mr. Roach Smith renders it in his Col. Ant., vol. vi. In the same way Dr. M°Caul thinks the mac. in DMonwm. Hist. Brit. should be ex- panded, and not MagNam, as suggested by Mr. Matthews, Gent. Mac., 1842, p. 598. In several inscriptions discovered on the line of the Roman Wall the Cohors I. Nervana Germanorum is repeatedly mentioned. We also find the Cohors III. Nerviorum cr. The er. Horsley and Hodgson in- terpreted as Genio Rome. Mr. Roach Smith proposed Germanorum as according with the others; and he cited Tacitus to shew that the Nervii were especially proud of being considered of German descent. Lysons read the word Nervana as indicating a compliment paid to the Emperor Nerva, or to the cohort by the Emperor. Dr. M°Caul thinks Mr. Roach Smith’s application of the passage in Tacitus very ingenious ; but he meets it with objections, one of which is that the Gx. as given by the earlier authorities, may be a misreading for c.R., civium Ro- manorum ; yet after a very fair and almost exhaustive discussion of the question, he concludes by observing, “It is difficult to decide which opinion should be preferred, as there are objections to both: on the whole I incline to Mr. Smith’s ; but I am not satisfied that it is correct.” Probably further discoveries will remove the doubt. Under the head of Derbyshire the whole of the inscriptions on pigs of lead found in this country are discussed with much ability; but without advancing our knowledge on the subject in any important degree or Gent. Mac, Voi, CCXIV, 3¥ 566 Romano-British Inscriptions. [May, with positive certainty. Still all the suggestions are useful. The most novel is an emendation of the stamp NERONIS AVG. EX KIAN IIIT’ COS, BRIT, Instead of adopting for the ex Kian, ew Kiangis, as Mr. R. Smith and Mr. Wright have proposed, Dr. M°Caul substitutes ex x(alendis) IAN(wariis), remarking,— “We know from Pliny, xxxiv., ch. 17, that there was a law prohibiting more than a limited production of lead in Britain, ne plus certo modo fiat ; and it seems probable that with a view to this law the blocks, at least in some reigns, bore marks of the time at which they were made, so that it might be known what blocks were manufactured, and consequently what quantity of lead was produced during the year. The mention of the consuls, or not unfrequently of one, especially the Emperor, was, as is well known, the recognised mode among the Romans of distinguishing the year. But it may be asked, why mention Kalendis Januariis when that day was commonly known to be the first of the consular year? To this it may be answered, that it was not uncommon for the Emperors to enter on the consulship at different periods of the year ; and hence it may have been necessary to specify in this case the date of the commencement of the Emperor’s fourth con- sulship. Another reason, peculiar to Nero, for this specification, may be, that it conveyed a flattering reference to his having rejected the proposition of the Senate that the year should begin with the month of December. Tacitus, Ann., xiii. 10, notices this fact,—Quamquam censuissent patres ut principium anni inciperet mense Decembri, quo ortus erat, veterem religionem Kalendarum Januariarum inchoando anno retinuit.” As a further justification of this ingenious interpretation, Dr. M°Caul explains the lateral inscription, rvtpmcos to stand for IvL(ias) P(ost) m(ensem) co(n)s(ulatum), “some such form as K or N or I being put before rviras.” And he concludes :—* If the views which I have sug- gested relative to these obscure inscriptions be adopted, the simplest explanation of the statement of the time—from the 1st of January to the of July—seems to be that it denotes the period for which the imperial tribute was paid by the set of pigs, of which this was one.” The De Ceang: (De Ceangis), on one of the pigs of lead of the time of Domitian, Dr. M°Caul will not allow to be equivalent to the Ez Kian (ex Kiangis) of that of Nero. In his reading of the following inscription Dr. M°Caul does not seem to be so happy :— DIS MOVNTI BYS . IVL FIRMIN V8 . DECE? This, Dr. Bruce, “‘ Roman Wall,” 2nd Edit., p. 398, translates :—‘ To the gods of the mountains, Julius Firminus, the Decurion, erected this.” Dr. M°Caul remarks :— ‘The rendering of Dis mountibus, as ‘ the gods of the mountains,’ or ‘the gods of mountains,’ seems to me very questionable. There is no doubt that mountains were worshipped as gods, e. g. Orelli, n. 2107; but I do not recollect having ever seen 1863.] Romano-British Inscriptions. 567 an example of the spelling mountibus. I suspect that the true reading is monentibus. Firminus erected the altar ex monitu deorum, but did not know who the gods were that directed him.” The learned critic does not give us a precedent for monentibus. The district (like that of Auch in France, where a dedication to the mountains (Montibus) was found ») of High Rochester, where the altar figured by Dr. Bruce was discovered, is just the locality where we might expect an altar dedicated to the mountains ; and the orthography does not seem to us in any way to invalidate Dr. Bruce’s reading. The interesting inscription now in St. John’s College, Cambridge, first published by Camden, and which has received important emendations from modern antiquaries, has a new light thrown upon the sixth line by Dr. M°Caul, who finds in it a second dedication, namely, to Orestea Diana, instead of Sub Dianio, or Dianio Antonino. Renewed examination will be needed of the stone itself, which unfortunately is much injured by exposure; but the two figures upon it certainly appear to have been intended for Apollo and Diana; and, so far, Dr. M°Caul has evidence in his favour. Still, three lines intervening between the names of the two divinities throw suspicion on the soundness of the proposed correction. The inscriptions of Caerleon have naturally attracted Dr. M°Caul’s attention. That of pl. xviii. of Mr. Lee’s “ Delineations of Roman Antiquities,” &c., which has been so much discussed on account of the word conjuges, he prefers interpreting, “ Cornelius Castus and Julius Belisimnus vowed the altar (to Fortune and Bonus Eventus)—their wives erected it.” Under what circumstances these two persons made a vow which it was left to their wives to discharge, imagination must be exercised to conceive ; or why, if it were so, two words at least were omitted, while there was abundant room for their insertion, is not easily explained. Although unauthorised by inscriptions, we prefer adhering to the acceptance of the word conjuges in the sense of contubernales, or yoke-fellows, in the same way as Columella applies the word conjux to one tree coupled to another :—‘ At si teneram ulmum maritaveris, novam sufferet: si vetustam vitem applicueris, conjugem necabit*.” To us it seems a less violent solution of the difficulty ; and it must be borne in mind that it is one of the peculiarities of lapidary inscriptions to de- viate occasionally from classical precedent and from their own formule, as in the inscription at Caerleon, in which the word centurias occurs, and ::m niversally accepted as meaning a barrack, or soldiers’ quarters. While many of Dr. M°Caul’s corrections are really important, some are almost needless rectifications of palpable errors, as CvR . AG., curator agrorum, for curam agente, which have accidentally been repeated. And when he asserts that such and such matters are “ erroneous” he may > Bulletin Monumental for 1849. © De Re Rustica, lib. v. cap. 6. 568 Romano-British Inscriptions. [May, sometimes be questioned ; as for instance when we stated 4, in reference to one of the Caerleon inscriptions, that its date must be limited from the year A.D. 253, when Valerian made Gallienus particeps imperit, to A.D. 259, when Saloninus was killed, we are told :—‘ These statements are erroneous: Gallienus was not associated in the empire until a.p. 254, nor was his son, Saloninus, ‘the young Cesar,’ killed until a.p. 260.” We are quite willing to rest upon the dates we have given, which are usually accepted ; and refer Dr. M‘Caul to the elaborate Paper on the family of the Emperor Valerian in the Baron Marchant’s Lettres sur la Numismatique et 0 Histoire®. The Principia et Armamentaria conlapsa of the Lanchester inscription, first published by Horsley (Durham, xii.), as most, if not all, understand it, must surely mean buildings which could decay and fall into ruins. Principia existed, no doubt, in temporary camps, without the necessity of being more than the place for the officers’ tents ; but Lanchester was a stationary camp, walled, and fortified; and there no doubt the prin- cipia were buildings. It is probable the word also occurs in an in- scription found at Bath, published by the Rev. Joseph Hunter in the “ Archeological Journal,” March, 1855; in which inscription there may be a question, as Dr. M°Caul (and everybody else) observes, whether Caracalla or Elagabalus be intended. Most will incline to Mr. Franks’ opinion, in favour of the latter. Upon coins Caracalla is usually styled GERManicus or BRITannicus, titles never given to Elagabalus, who is very commonly styled Feliz. But Dr. M°Caul, although he quotes Eckhel, will have some difficulty in discovering a coin upon which Caracalla is styled invictus. Elagabalus is commonly called both rvvicrvs saceRDos Ava. and symMvs sacerDos Ave. Still, inscriptions cannot be criticised too severely. One of the most successful and important rectifications made by Dr. M°Caul is that of a name in the Risingham inscription, (Dr. Bruce’s ‘Roman Wall,” p. 287; Mon. Hist. Brit., p. cxvi.; Henzen, n. 6701, &c.) :— “TI have no doubt,” he observes, “that the individual here named is the same Adventus who some years afterwards, in A.D. 218, was Consul, with the Emperor Macrinus. His nomen gentilicium is variously given as Coclatinus, Oclatinus, and Oclatinius.—Oclatinius Adventus was one of the most remarkable men of his time. He entered the army as a common soldier, serving among the Speculatores and Exploratores. Then he became successively a tabularius and cubicularius, from which he was raised to the office of procurator. Subsequently to his serving in England he accompanied Caracalla in his Parthian expedition as colleague of Macrinus, and was, I suspect, privy to the murder of the Emperor. After that 4 Gent. MaG., Aug. 1862, p. 152. © Paris, 1851. “Comme il est positif que Salonin est mort en 259,” &c., p. 550. A.D, 253 is even more generally admitted as the year in which Valerian admitted Gallienus as his imperial associate. 1863.] Romano-British Inscriptions. 569 he was despatched by Macrinus to Rome, ad funus Caracalli ducendum as Reimar states in his note, but in reality to get rid of his pretensions as a rival aspirant to the imperial throne; for Adventus did not scruple to tell the soldiers, after the death of Caracalla, that the sovereignty properly devolved on him as the senior of Macrinus, but that in consideration of his advanced age he would give place to his junior. After his return to Rome he was in great favour with Macrinus, who ele- vated him to the rank of Senator, and to the office of Prefectus Urbi.—Then he became consul with Macrinus, and, after the death of that emperor, finished his year as colleague of Elagabalus. Dio Cassius speaks of him very contemptuously, and derides his want of qualifications for the high positions to which he had at- tained ; but his career proves he must have been a man of very uncommon ability. The inscription confirms the accuracy of the historian as to his having held the office of procurator; and disproves the conjecture of Reimar, that he had been procurator ret private.” The oprs of the last line but two, considered by Henzen as initials of the cognomina of the cohort, are more satisfactorily amplified by Dr. M°Caul into opertbus perfectis. The Duke of Northumberland’s liberality having led to the discovery of some important, though mutilated, inscriptions at High Rochester, the propretor Tib. Claudius Paulinus was found to be mentioned in one of them. This propreetor had not before been met with in any monument discovered in this country; but he figures conspicuously in connection with Britain in a most valuable and interesting inscription found at Vieux in Normandy, (see Collectanea Antiqua, iii. p. 95). Dr. M°Caul also detects him on another of the High Rochester stones, veiled as C. Claudius Apellinius. The c. he proposes to read cwra (sub cura); and in full sub cura Claudii Paulini, the prenomen Tiberius being in this instance, as in the Vieux inscription, wanting. The report of the proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, printed in the Genrteman’s Magazine of De- cember, 1862, introduced to Dr. M°Caul two of the latest inscriptions discovered in this country. To this report we refer our readers to re- fresh their memory before they study the Doctor’s remarks, which are as follows :— “The difficulty common to the two inscriptions is the name of the deity. It is not improbable that Antenociticus and Anociticus represent the same god, but I have never before met with either designation, and am unable to offer any probable suggestion on the subject. The other portions of the first inscription are so plain that it is unnecessary to offer any remark on them; but the second is by no means clear. There is a passage, however, in Suetonius, Cleudius, 25, which, when compared with Vegetius, ii. 7, seems to me to throw much light on the in- scription. The first is—Zquestres militias ita ordinavit, ut post cohortem, alam ; post alam, tribunatum legionis daret ; the second—Tribunus major per epistolam sacram Imperatoris judicio destinatur: minor tribunus provenit ex labore. From these passages we learn that Claudius made the tribuneship of a legion a higher grade of service than the prefecture of an ala, i.e. that the promotion should be f Dion Cassius, Hist., xxviii. 14, ed. Reimar, Hamburgh, 1752, p. 1322. 570 Romano-British Inscriptions. [May, from prefectura equitum to tribunatus legionis. We also learn that there were two classes of tribunes—the greater and the less, The higher office was conferred by order or decision of the emperor ; the other, the lower, was obtained by service. There can, I think, be no doubt that these two classes are the same otherwise called tribuni laticlavii, aud tribuni angusticlavii. (Compare Suetonius, Domitian, 10, Otho, 10, and Horace, Sat. i. 6, 25, 28). Accordingly I regard the words in prafectura equitum lato clavo exornatus as denoting that Tineius Longus was promoted to the office of tridunus laticlavius whilst he held the office of pre- JSectus equitum. And in precisely the same sense I understand the verse in the in- scription found at Caervoran, given by Dr. Bruce, “ Roman Wall,” p. 393 :—TZri- bunus in prafecto dono principis. The Q.D. I am inclined to take as standing for questor designatus, as in Horsley’s “ Westmoreland,” viii. “ But we have to take up the preceding lines, judiciis optimorum maximorumque imperatorum nostrorum sub Vibio (or Ulpio) Marcello consulari. The term judiciis is plainly not to be regarded asa deity. It is evidently used in the same sense as judicio in the passage cited from Vegetius, and the reason for its being in the plural seems to be, that by one judicium the appointment of tribunus laticlavus was conferred, by another that of questor designatus. Hence it appears there is no necessity for looking for conjoint emperors in explanation of IMPP.N., nor for an example of optimi maximique applied to such. These judicia may have been by different emperors at different times ; and, in my judgment, it is not improbable that the two emperors referred to are Trajan and Hadrian, each of whom was styled optimus maximus, e.g. Orelli, nn. 795, 3742; or, it may be, Nerva and Trajan. The Marcellus under whom Tineius Longus served when he was promoted, was, as seems to me, neither Ulpius Marcellus, the general under Commodus, nor Ulpius Marcellus, the legal adviser of Antoninus Pius, but L. Neratius Marcellus, who is named in Trajan’s diploma of 4.D. 104. He was consularis, for he had been consul in A.D. 103, and there are examples of the omission of both legatus and propretore. But how can this opinion be reconciled with the statement that Dr. Bruce’s rub- bings ‘ shewed clearly that VLP., as suggested by Mr. Clayton, was correct ?? Can it be that; Marcellus had two nomina gentilitia—Ulpius and Neratius? Or may I venture still to question the reading, and to suggest a re-examination of the stone, with the view of ascertaining whether the letters may not be NER. or L.NE., or NE. ?” The name of the deity to whom the two altars are dedicated appears as Anociticus and as Antenociticus ; and in this variation of the spelling in what is doubtless one and the same name, is another instance of the blundered manner in which such names are sometimes presented in ancient monuments. Mr. Roach Smith suggests it may be a name of Apollo, or the Sun; while Captain Shortt (in a private communication) thinks it may refer to Antinoiis, the deified favourite of the Emperor Hadrian. The difficult inscription, Horsley, Brit. Rom., Northumberland, n. cviii., in which instead of reading Prefectus Equitum Casariensium Coriono- totarum, Dr. M°Caul proposes . . Praefectus Equitum, eesti Corionototarum manu (recording an engagement between the Romans and Britons), though ingenious, will not be so readily adopted as many of his rectifi- cations, which in the main are highly worthy attention. Altogether the book is a valuable accession to the study of a difficult and important branch of our national archeology, which is ouly seriously attended to 1863.] Appleby Token. 571 by few. And we trust the author’s ability will be further taxed by the discovery of other monuments of this class, for there can be no doubt that in the north of England hundreds are yet awaiting, especially along the line of the Roman Wall, the researches of the archeologist. It is understood that Dr. Bruce is about to produce a third edition of his “Roman Wall;” and also a separate work on the Roman inscriptions of the district. In these publications, no doubt, many of the emenda- tions of Dr. M°Caul will be anticipated, while it is probable others may be confirmed or modified by unpublished additions. APPLEBY TOKEN. We copy the following from the “Kendal Mercury” of March 28, 1863, conceiving it of interest, as tending to settle a question in numismatics upon which different opinions have been entertained. “Tn taking down the old dwellings on the south side of Allhallows’-lane, Kendal, consequent on the widening of that street, the workmen have turned up a small brass token of the seventeenth century, issued at Appleby, in Westmoreland, in the year 1669. “Mr. Brockett, in his ‘Tradesmen’s Tokens (of the seventeenth century) issued in the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland,’ 1853, and republished in the GENTLEMAN’S MaGazinz for May of that year, has omitted to notice this specimen ; it is however engraved and described in the latter publication for March, 1792, p- 209, without, we believe, being assigned to any county. In Mr. Boyne’s elaborate work, ‘ Tokens issued in the Seventeenth Century in England, Wales, and Ireland,’ 1858, and also in Mr. North’s ‘ Leicestershire Tokens,’ 1857, it is given, but in both dubiously appropriated to Appleby in Leicestershire. “We think, however, there can be no question that we are right in claiming this token for our Appleby, from the fact of its occasional—though it must be admitted rare— occurrence in this part of the country, and also that William Smith (doubtless the issuer of the token now under consideration) was Mayor of Appleby, in this county, in the years 1667 and 1673. “If any of our Appleby correspondents could identify the pigeon chosen for his obverse by the William Smith of the token as having any reference or allusion to the trade or occupation of their Mayor of that name, it might further tend to confirm our assumption, and finally decide the question of this token’s parentage. “The token just discovered is of brass, of the farthing size, and is in excellent preservation. It contains on the “ Obverse—WILLIAM-SMITH* = A pigeon pecking. . * . “ Reverse—IN-APPLEBYE-1669* — w s. 2 And is now in the possession of John Hudson, Esq., of Larch How. “We believe this to be the first time the above token has been accurately delineated, as in all the descriptions we have met with the name of the town is spelled APPLEBIE, instead of APPLEBYE. ** Kendal, March 25, 1863. “K.K.” 572 CORNISH CHURCHES. VII. ST. BREAGE—ST. GERMOE—ST. PERRAN-UTHNOE. Breaca, a lady of rank, and Germoe, a king, belonged to that large company of Irish missionaries, which, according to the tradition, landed, some time in the fifth century, at Riviere, at the mouth of the Hayle. Several of these saints were slain, says Dr. Borlase, near where they came ashore, by Theodoric, a heathen king of Cornwall. Dr. Whitaker, on the other hand, contends that this king was a Christian, that a few of the party were killed only, through mistake, and that as soon as Theodoric became aware of the nature of their holy mission he treated them with great hospitality, and permitted them to go where they would. “Germoe mather Breaga lavethes.” i.e. “Germoe a king Breage a midwife,” is an old Cornish distich which some have attempted to explain in a spiritual sense. However this may be, it seems that St. Breaca and St. Germoe crossed from Riviere to the southern coast*, where the former caused a church to be built, and St. Germoe made his abode at a short distance. Sr. Breace is the mother church of St. Germoe, St. Cury, and St. Gunwalloe. The parish of Sithney intervenes between St. Breage and St. Gunwalloe, but St. Germoe adjoins St. Breage on the west and is separated from St. Perran-uthnoe only by a narrow strip of the parish of St. Hilary, which in a curious manner runs down to the sea, apparently just to claim the pro- minent headland known as Cudden Point. St. Germoe does not extend to the sea, for all the line of coast, excepting Cudden Point, from Maendu, which is a little eastward of St. Michael’s Mount, to Porthleven, is included in the parishes of St. Per- ran-uthnoe and St. Breage. A glance at the map will shew how strangely this group of parishes is divided. Starting either from Helston or Penzance it would be pos- * Dr. Whitaker seriously suggests that St. Breaca came to this spot to reform wreckers! And strange to say, there are still to be found a few persons so utterly ignorant in regard to their own country as to believe that wrecking is even now practised in Cornwall! 4 1863.] Cornish Churches. 573 sible, with tolerable ease, to visit in one day the three churches which form the subject of this paper. If not pressed for time a pleasant excursion might be made by leaving Penzance and proceeding direct to St. Perran-uthnoe Church, thence down to Perran Sands, and across Cudden Point, just beyond which is Prussia Cove with a coast-guard station and a few fishermen’s houses. Then on to the fine stretch of beach called Pra Sands. About a quarter of a mile from the shore stands Pengers- wick Castle, built in the early part of the sixteenth cen- tury, and was the residence of the Militons. One of this family, Job Militon, was governor of St. Michael’s Mount in the time of Edward VI. The greater part of the building has long ago fallen into decay, but a three-storied and battlemented tower remains in tolerable preservation. An upper room adjoin- ing the tower had panelled walls, each panel containing a rude painting with a legend in verse beneath’. Following along the coast, the next remarkable place is Tre- wavas Head, where a detached mass of granite called the “Bishop Rock” assumes the form of a colossal figure with its back to the sea, and with clasped hands resting on a lectern, whilst the robe trails down the cliff side. It does not require the aid of imagination to trace in this naturally formed figure the striking resemblance to a kneeling monk, and it is much superior to many similarly situated rocks on the coast to which names have been given for their supposed likeness to familiar things or remarkable personages*. Referring to this locality, Mr. W. J. Henwood says :— “The wild romantic character of the coast is inferior to nothing of the kind in Cornwall; and Wheal Trewavas‘’, which has its engines perched on the > The following, entitled “Perseverance,” affords a good example of these verses :— “ What thing is harder than the rock ? What softer is than water cleere ? Yet wyll the same, with often droppe, The hard rock perce, as doth a spere ; Even so, nothing so hard to attayne, But may be hadd with labour and payne.” Other lines refer to certain abuses of the time of Henry VIII., probably strictures on that monarch himself. © The Rev. C. A. Johns has figured the Bishop Rock in his instructive “ Week at the Lizard.” 4 Wheal Vor, also in this parish, has been in its time one of the richest mines in Cornwall: —“ The present working of Wheal Vor has been continued about Gent. Mac. Vor, CCXIV. 3Z 574 Cornish Churches, [May, cliffs, and its workings beneath the sea, is quite as picturesque as Botallack or Levant in the St. Just district *.” St. Breage Church is little more than two miles from the coast, and to succeed in the tour of inspection of the three churches it would now be necessary to proceed to the church town, and thence to St. Germoe. Before describing the church it may be worth while to refer to a few other objects in St. Breage. In this parish are two hills called Godolphin and Tregoning, which are conspicuous from all the shores of Mount’s Bay. At the foot of the former stands the old mansion-house, (a quadrangular building of the time of Queen Elizabeth,) of the noble family of Godolphin. The mean- ing of the word Godolphin has not been satisfactorily explained, and it appears that the family took a portion of the word lite- rally, and adopted a dolphin for their crest, as may be seen on itidiatitiatiat the old helmets in St. Breage ; Church. On the summit of Tregoning Hill are the remains of a large fort, or as it is termed in Cornwall, a “ hill-castle.” This appears to have been of great strength, and was one of the largest struc- tures of the kind in Cornwall. The hill was formerly called Pencairn, and Leland refers to the castle as Cair Kenin, alias Gonyn and Conin. It was to this hill of Pencairn that St. Breaca first came after leaving Riviere, and, says Leland, “ edificavit eccl. in Trenewith et Talmeneth.” The ancient name of the parish was Pembro, and the place called Trenewith is some distance from the site of the present church, which stands on rising ground adjoining the high-road leading from Helston to Penzance. The church possesses no architectural features of particular interest ; it consists of a chancel and nave, with western tower, eighteen years, and in that time about £1,240,000 worth of tin has been raised, of which I believe that more than £100,000 has been profit to the adventurers.” — W. J. Henwood, F.R.S., F.G.S., in Trans. Geological Society of Cornwall, vol. v. 1843, ® Trans. Geological Society of Cornwall, vol. v. 1863. ] Cornish Churches. 575 north and south aisles, each with a small transeptal projection, probably constructed as chapels for, and at the cost of, impor- tant families of the locality. The wooden roof of the north transept has some well-carved bosses. The south aisle has a porch of the same local character as those of St. Burian and St. Wendron previously described. The piers separating the aisles from the nave are of the usual type, consisting of four rounded and four cavetto mouldings ; the cavettos, however, are broader than usual. The capitals also resemble those found in other Perpendicular churches in western Cornwall. Indeed, the church throughout is of the fifteenth century; all traces of earlier work, if any exist, being obscured by later additions and alterations. The tower is so nearly like that of St. Germoe that the description to be given of the am jose" latter will serve for both. There is 4033 Co/MiiIaG considerable difference, however, be- tween the tower-arches. At St. Breage the arch is panelled, of lofty proportions, and is perhaps the finest Perpendicular arch to be found in any of the churches of the district. A few years ago the head of a cross was discovered buried in the churchyard ; it is similar in form to others existing in churchyards in Cornwall, is evidently much older than the present church, and may be contemporaneous with the original fabric. As at St. Burian, this cross has lost its shaft. In the taxation of Pope Nicholas IV., (a.p. 1288-91,) the entry is as follows :— “Ecclesia Sancte Breace. Taxatio £16; Decima £1 12s.; Vicaria ejus- dem £1 6s, 8d.” Capitals, St. Breage. Cross, St. Breage. Sr. GrrMoe at one time appears to have been a Decorated cruciform church; the north transept having been superseded 576 Cornish Churches. [May, by a fifteenth-century aisle, to which a shallow transeptal pro- jection was added as at St. Breage and elsewhere. The south transept, wall of nave, and porch, are all that re- main of the Decorated work, and these present interesting and remarkable features, differing materially from other churches St. Germoe Church. of the district. In most of the early transeptal churches the porch either adjoins or is very near the transept, as if later additions; here, however, the porch is 11 ft. from the transept, and between the two, in the wall of the nave, is a peculiar Decorated square window of three ogee-headed lights with quatrefoils in the head. The south window of the transept was apparently of the same design, but the quatrefoils have been removed and the space between the points of the three lights and the square hoodmould occupied by solid masonry. This accounts for the great height of the mould above the lights. In the east wall of the transept is a window of two ogee-headed lights. There does not appear to have been an oblique wall at the junction with the chancel, but at the angle mouldings are car- ried up to the height of seven feet, where they sprung into a diagonal arch, of which only twelve or thirteen inches remain. 1863.] Cornish Churches. 577 This probably formed the narrow passage at the end of the screen, and led from the chancel to the transept. If such were the case it shews that the primary object of this peculiar con- struction was rather to afford means of communication than for the purpose of a hagioscope, though we have seen they are in several instances combined. At St. Perran-uthnoe another variation of the prevailing plan will be noticed. The transept is divided from the nave by a single pier rising from a rude block of stone, between two and three feet high before the moulding commences, and supporting a square beam of oak, extending across the breadth of the transept. The capital and mouldings of this pier are similar to those between nave and aisle at St. Wen- dron’. A moulded corbel projects from the west wall of the transept, and pro- bably supported an earlier roof. . The inner and outer doorways of the porch have deep mouldings of a superior \ character. The pretty gable cross, and “~ ar Gable Cross of Porch, grotesquely sculptured gable corbels, are St. Germoe. also features of rare occurrence, indeed they may be said to be unique in West Cornwal