Maximilian and Carlota by M. M. McAllen (Ebook)
M. M. McAllen
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Preface

The violent collapse of the Second Empire of Mexico in 1867 was one of the most spectacular personal tragedies and political failures of the nineteenth century. At the time and over the next one hundred years, the story remained a sensation in Europe and the Americas, though often hidden against the backdrop of the American Civil War. The rise of Mexico’s Second Empire succeeded in part because, in the early 1860s, the Civil War so debilitated the United States that it left Mexico, recently emerged from its own War of the Reform under the leadership of new president Benito Juárez, seemingly defenseless. A number of European countries, especially France, continued to stalk territory in the Western Hemisphere, and with the United States otherwise distracted by its own struggle between the North and South, the French recognized an opportunity to prey on Mexico, perceived by them to be feckless but strategic. Europeans believed that it was only a matter of time before the United States annexed additional lands from its southern neighbor, as they had in 1848 and 1853, so they saw a race to grab territory. The path to establishing the Second Empire of Mexico began with an 1861 invasion by the French army under Emperor Napoléon III (Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) using the pretext of reclaiming unpaid bond debt. With a deep-seated desire to defeat U.S. influence in Latin America and to enrich France in the process, Napoléon’s experienced and impressive armies were determined to win against a sturdy resistance by Mexico’s Republican armies. The French prevailed in pushing President Benito Juárez out of the capital and to the far desert expanses of the north. The war drew out two years longer than Napoléon III anticipated, yet by the end of 1863, the French dominated Mexico City and a large portion of Mexico’s population centers. This opened the way for Conservative factions to place a monarch over the established empire of Mexico. Austria’s Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian von Habsburg and his wife, Princess Carlota of Belgium, accepted the invitation to take the throne of Mexico, offered by Napoléon III, the Mexican monarchists, and clerics.¹

This curious story highlights the incongruities that occur when people of numerous cultures, in this case not only from Mexico and Europe but also Asia and Africa, come together under tense circumstances. The liminal qualities of this story—so many foreigners in a foreign land—make for a fascinating glimpse into the nineteenth century, the philosophies of European heads of state, a newly emerging Mexico, and the shake-up of the United States. Maximilian’s attempts to anchor an empire in this convulsive climate proved to be a test of Old World methods against a new paradigm in America. During this turbulent time, occupied by armies, officers, and diplomats from abroad, Mexico became a microcosm of erupting European geopolitics, especially in view of Prussia’s intent to wage war against Austria and France.²

In this book, readers should note that adherents to the Mexican empire are also referred to as Imperialistas and Monarchists. Conservatives and Clerical party members who wanted to maintain a strong central Catholic Church at times encouraged a monarchy or denounced it, depending on Maximilian’s actions. Supporters of Juárez are also termed Liberals or Republicans, just as they were in their day. The princess Charlotte was known in Mexico and elsewhere as Carlota—so the history begins and ends with this spelling.

Over the years, the story of the reign of Maximilian and Carlota has been told in myriad ways. Authors have written of this strange and complicated saga as history, but a good many others, inspired by the raw emotion of the epic, fictionalized the story further. A number of plays and songs were written about the Second Empire, as well as a 1939 Warner Brothers motion picture simply entitled Juárez (screenplay by John Huston, with Bette Davis, Paul Muni, Brian Aherne, and Claude Rains). Clearly, however, the absurd, complicated, and tragic tale of an Austrian archduke and a Belgian princess on the throne of Mexico produced enough innate drama to stand on its own, without further fictionalization.³

Author’s note: In 1865, 1 Peso = 1 U.S. Dollar. 1 U.S. Dollar in 1865 = $16.25 in 2010.⁴

Prologue

Bouchout Castle, Meise, Belgium, 1900

Inspired by the spring breezes and emergent blossoms signaling the time for adventure, Carlota, a beautiful, waiflike woman, nearly sixty, princess of Belgium, and, for a brief time, the empress of Mexico, walked gently down the pier on the lake at Bouchout. Wearing a shawl, her cropped gray hair tucked into a chignon and crowned by a straw hat woven with ribbon, her chambermaid steadied her. Carlota placed her slipper on the gunwale of the small wooden rowboat, rocking it in the water. Today we leave for Mexico, she said, before stepping into the boat for a brief excursion. Rowed about by her attendants, she saw herself gliding over Lake Texcoco escorted by French military officers.¹

INTRODUCTION

Mexicans, You Have Desired My Presence

May 28, 1864, two o’clock in the afternoon, Port of Veracruz, Mexico

The captain of the frigate Novara advised Maximilian and Carlota to make ready for port at the sultry bay of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico. The two emerged from their suites into the swirling, smoky air of the steamship’s quarterdeck and strained to see the peak of Mount Orizaba, the highest mountain in Mexico, which stood shrouded in a snowy fog, nearly ninety miles west. The sight of the bastion San Juan de Ulúa, where battalion commanders fired cannon salutes to the sovereigns, encouraged them that their arrival in the new empire of Mexico had been acknowledged. The thirty-one-year-old emperor, Austria’s Ferdinand Maximilian von Habsburg, perfectly at home on the Novara, Austria’s famous flagship, viewed for the first time his new dominion. His wife Carlota, the twenty-three-year-old Princess of Belgium, with her attendants prepared to greet a Mexican receiving committee while the ship’s crew dropped anchor, secured the lines, and shut down the loud, droning engines.¹

The royal couple looked out on Veracruz, an unremarkable town of dwellings and warehouses, yet the main entrepôt of foreign trade and goods going to the heart of Mexico, a site the Americans had bombarded only seventeen years earlier during the Mexican War. Flanking the town stood the fabled and rambling cemetery that had come to be known as the deathbed of nations. The French facetiously called the burial grounds Le Jardin d’Acclimation. It represented the ravages of yellow fever, also known as the vomito prieto, and the unyielding toll the disease took on newcomers, especially on the thousands of French and Austrian soldiers who had arrived in 1862 and 1863 to fight Benito Juárez’s Liberal army and clear the path for Maximilian’s new empire. It was a haunting salutation. The Europeans, unlike the natives of Veracruz who had immunity to the disease, arrived highly susceptible.²

Port of Veracruz, Mexico, masted steamships at anchor and customs house, ca. 1875

Port of Veracruz, Mexico, masted steamships at anchor and customs house, ca. 1875

Buildings around the harbor were garlanded, flowered arches decorated the streets, and the ships at anchor flew celebratory flags of welcome, but only a small gathering of people cheered from rooftops and wharfs, setting off rockets and fireworks. On board, steeping in the humidity, the royals could hear the bugles of a small band.³ Being celebrities in Europe and accustomed to much pomp and grandeur at their appearances, this small reception seemed anemic and strange, when the country voted to change its government to a monarchy and beckoned them to its new throne. Curiously, Mexico had not orchestrated a grand ceremony to commemorate the historic and monumental occasion of the arrival of their new monarchs. Veracruz appeared mostly vacated, as Maximilian and Carlota witnessed. A large percentage of foreigners comprised the population of 8,000, and most represented Mexican and European shipping companies and financial houses. Many remained opposed to French interference and the new imperial state. Generally, these independent merchants avoided any attempt to organize the business of imports and exports, which might have inhibited the quasi-contraband transactions they thrived upon. As one aide observed, any government that enforced duties remained the traders’ enemy.⁴

Maximilian and his administrators had no word from the imperial welcoming committee of Mexican officials who should have been awaiting their arrival, ready to lead them inland through the mountains to the capital of Mexico City. When local imperial prefect Domingo Bureau spied the Novara through his telescope, he sent word immediately to Juan Nepomuceno Almonte, lieutenant general of the realm and interim chief commander of the empire, waiting upland at the town of Córdoba, located 3,000 feet above sea level, not wanting to risk exposure to yellow fever. He planned to rush to Veracruz upon the confirmed arrival of the sovereign. Almonte and his wife, with the rest of the committee, immediately started out for Veracruz before the Novara anchored, but the journey from Córdoba, over sixty miles west, was slow and rough.⁵

Since the royal party arrived during the time of contagion, French officers and Mexican advisors recommended that Maximilian and Carlota remain on board to reduce the time exposed to infection in Veracruz. According to some, this delay spoiled the emperor and empress’s victorious entrance by disappointing onlookers excited to welcome them. However, waiting to disembark, Carlota viewed the Mexican seaport rather cheerfully, writing to her eighty-two-year-old grandmother, Marie-Amélie, the former queen of France, We are leaving early tomorrow morning for Mexico City and will be en route for a while. I am infinitely pleased with the appearance of Veracruz. It reminds me of Cádiz, but a bit more oriental, recalling her view of the ancient seaport on Spain’s western coast.⁶

A short time later, French admiral Auguste Bosse and an aide rowed out to the royal steamer, climbed on deck, and Bosse proceeded to lambaste the captain for mooring in what he considered the most contagious waters at bearings so close to shore. People had died, he said, after only one night in port. Maximilian himself, a former admiral in the Austrian navy, had ordered the ship’s captain not to anchor near the French vessels but south of the fort, occupied by Napoléon III’s army, to thwart the impression, ironically, that he entered the country under French protection. He wanted his arrival to demonstrate he arrived at the invitation of the people of Mexico, who, he was assured, had voted for a monarchy. Bosse also grumbled on about guerrillas lying in wait along the long and treacherous route to Mexico City. He said that the French military commander-in-chief, Marshal François Achille Bazaine, remained too busy fighting in the field to personally escort the sovereigns from Veracruz. Maximilian tried to view the mix-ups lightly, while others stood aghast.⁷

Maximilian von Habsburg, ca. 1860

Maximilian von Habsburg, ca. 1860

Carlota of Belgium, ca. 1864

Carlota of Belgium, ca. 1864

Finally, in the evening, Almonte and his wife, Dolores, along with Gen. Mariano Salas and other members of the Imperialist delegation arrived from Córdoba and rowed out in a few small skiffs to the Novara. Almonte, a longtime Mexican diplomat having served in France, England, and Spain, had assisted in constructing the conceptual Mexican Imperial government, ruling as chief of the regency until Maximilian’s arrival. He and the assembled Monarchists boarded the Novara, the deck illuminated by torches and lanterns, and formally welcomed Maximilian surrounded by officers and midshipmen.⁸

The emperor stood tall at six feet in height, a slender man with expressive blue eyes. He had very pale skin, almost pink some said, and silky, blond hair and a short beard that he parted in the middle in Austrian fashion. On this evening, he dressed in a black frock coat, white vest, and white pants, with a black cravat. He greeted the Mexican legation warmly and drew the party into the upper deck salon, where they exchanged welcomes and pleasantries. The imperial prefect of Veracruz, Domingo Bureau, addressed Maximilian as the savior of Mexico, heralding his arrival as a new era under a benign scepter. At this historic moment, long anticipated by partisans ready for a Mexican monarchy, everyone gathered marveled at Maximilian, their sovereign, thanking God for a return to solid leadership at last.⁹

Maximilian replied, I view with pleasure the arrival of the day when I can walk the soil of my new and beautiful country, and salute the people who have chosen me, said Maximilian. May God grant that the goodwill that led me toward you may be advantageous to you; and that all good Mexicans uniting to sustain me, there will be better days for Mexico.¹⁰

Maximilian then introduced Carlota to the committee. A pretty and tall but delicate-looking woman with dark and flashing eyes, she commanded attention without having to utter a word, accustomed as she was to being understood, the only daughter of the king of Belgium. In conversation, she had the habit of squinting as though trying to focus. She smiled, laughed, and usually conveyed a pleasant demeanor but transmitted the attitude that she was not in the habit of putting up with anyone’s trifling.¹¹

Joaquín Velásquez de León, the newly appointed secretary of state, made a sincere, welcoming speech to the imperial couple and then addressed Carlota. The Mexicans, Madam, who expect so much from the good influence of your Majesty in favor of all that is noble and great, of all that bears relation to the elevated sentiments of religion and of country, bless the moment in which your Majesty reached the soil and proclaim in one voice, ‘Long Live the Empress.’ In slow but good Spanish, Carlota thanked the delegation, saying how happy she was at arriving in her new country. Afterward, during the reception, Almonte’s wife, Dolores, spontaneously embraced Carlota in customary Mexican fashion. The empress recoiled with uncertain awkwardness, unaccustomed to this sort of greeting, against the protocol and formality of the Belgian court.¹²

Maximilian brought with him a sizeable retinue to organize and prepare his court, as he would have arranged it in Europe, where he previously governed. The core group numbered about eighty, including Félix Eloin, his private secretary; Sebastian Scherzenlechner, head of the civil cabinet; Count Félix von Zichy, master of the court; Count Charles de Bombelles, rear-admiral of the Austrian navy, a longtime friend and close advisor; Marquis Giuseppe Corio, his chamberlain; and Jacob von Kuhachevich, the treasurer of the household, along with a number of military and political advisors, both Austrian and native Mexican.¹³

From the Novara, Maximilian issued a written statement to the people of Mexico: Mexicans: You have desired my presence. Your noble nation, by a voluntary majority, has chosen me to watch henceforth over your destinies. I gladly respond to this call. Painful as it has been for me to bid farewell forever to my own, my native country, I have done so, being convinced that the Almighty has pointed out to me, through you, the mission of devoting all my strength and heart to a people who, tired of war and disastrous contests, sincerely wish for peace and prosperity; to a people who having gloriously obtained their independence, desire to reap the benefit of civilization and true progress.¹⁴

Soon the French soldiers at Fort San Juan de Ulúa and on shore lit saltpeter torches known as bengalas, the blue glow stretching lambently across the water and illuminating the night sky. French sailors, anchored at the nearby Isla de Sacrificios, hung lanterns from their ships’ riggings and lines, and the troops fired petards and cannon salutes from the fortress. No one slept that night. Maximilian and Carlota eagerly waited for the moment to disembark and begin the trip to the capital and see their new country.¹⁵

The next morning, at 4:30, Maximilian, Carlota, and their entourage of ministers and attendants attended mass. Afterward, the sailors rowed them to the breakwater, a mephitic smell rising from the gulf water. The boom of cannon saluted the royals’ arrival. A delegation of officials greeted them as they disembarked, welcomed them to Mexico, and presented them with a key to the city on a silver tray. Despite the sincerity of the town council, lady-in-waiting Paula Kollonitz described the reception as chilling, mostly by the absence of people. After the brief ceremony, Maximilian, Carlota, and their entourage climbed into carriages and traveled through the empty streets under French and Mexican military escort. They passed through a few arches erected to celebrate their arrival. At the perimeter of the town, military officials helped the entourage onto a narrow-gauge train waiting to take them west to the cooler, upper plateaus of Mexico. The unadorned rush seats and rickety condition of the cars unnerved some members of the entourage, accustomed to much grander modes of travel.¹⁶

The rail line, improved hastily two years earlier by the French military to move their armies out of the pestilent climate of Veracruz, ended only a short way inland. At the small village of Loma Alta, the royal party transferred to carriages, some vehicles in better condition than others, to complete the three-hundred-mile trip. It was difficult finding space, not only for the passengers but also their five hundred pieces of luggage. The large entourage had to divide into several parties, given the impracticality of traveling in one long caravan. Those assigned to set up the royal household went ahead in order to reach Mexico City before the sovereigns. Many rode behind in cramped phaetons or mule-drawn covered diligences or simple wagons, and some, like William Heide, the conductor of the royal orchestra from Vienna, rode most of the way with his wife, Kate, on the back of a burro. Although their destination of Córdoba lay not far, the rugged terrain that one diplomat called a sketch of a road remained little more than heavily rutted, muddy trails. Maximilian and Carlota rode in elaborate English traveling carriages, solidly built, but for paved roads.¹⁷

Railroad trestle and bridge at La Soledad from Veracruz, ca. 1864

Railroad trestle and bridge at La Soledad from Veracruz, ca. 1864

As they approached the Río Chiquihuite on the trail through the mountain pass of Paso del Macho, the climate and vegetation became tropical and dense. Being the rainy season, low clouds and mist hung in the air. The Mexican escorts repeatedly apologized for the condition of the road; however, Maximilian and Carlota assured them they did not mind, having traveled to tropical and rugged places in the past. The lush mountains with their rivers, ravines, and waterfalls astonished the emperor and empress with their beauty.¹⁸

The royal couple now had their first glimpse of rural Mexico, comprised almost entirely of indigenous peoples living in poverty except for the riches of their gardens, which were bountiful. They had few possessions and lived plainly. The children, only half-clothed, kicked around coconuts playing ball games, while women offered the travelers bananas and mangos.¹⁹

Members of the entourage worried about the narrow, slick roads and the steep ravines, known as barrancas, where guerrillas or highway bandits frequently lurked. Often the guerrillas worked for regional caudillos, or for Juárez, against the empire. The drivers kept the carriages steady on the mountain trails. Skilled drivers were paid extra if they went a hundred days without overturning a coach. The imperial military guard comprised of a French column and Mexican troops commanded by Col. Miguel López, a cavalryman known for his fine military record and impeccable protocol, escorted Maximilian’s carriage and directed the drivers. Three years later, López would come to play an unexpected role in Maximilian’s reign.²⁰

Stopping on the twisting route, they ate a hurried supper at the military post of Paso del Macho and resumed their trek to the next town of Córdoba. A storm erupted, and as sheets of water fell over the entourage, a wheel broke on Carlota’s carriage, forcing her to change vehicles. The gloom of night brought new worries of possible attacks by guerrillas. Carlota, remembering the warnings of Admiral Bosse at Veracruz, imagined gunmen at every turn but tried to remain calm. "Things looked so odd that I should not have been surprised if Juárez himself had appeared with some hundreds of guerrilleros."²¹

As the party approached Córdoba, the local priest sent a number of local people down the road to meet them. The natives carried torches to guide the carriages. They passed through one section known as Sal si puedes (get out if you can), named for the deep mire requiring all the energy of the mules. With sixteen reins in one hand and a whip in the other, the drivers whistled, called, and hissed, while a young assistant threw stones at the mule’s rumps and flanks, some animals under harness for the first time. Kollonitz thought the drivers picturesque with their short leather jackets, hairy goatskin leggings, and sombreros. When carriages turned over, Carlota later wrote that it required all their youth and good humor to escape being crippled with stiffness or breaking a rib.²²

The party arrived at the garrison of Córdoba at two in the morning, exhausted and hungry. Maximilian and Carlota did not complain, although they received many apologies. We did not feel in the least bit tired, Carlota later remarked. The residents lit torches and lanterns on nearly every building to honor their arrival, a beautiful sight to any traveler. White-clad Indians waved ferns and flowers. French officers in gold-embroidered uniforms wearing ribbons and medals greeted them, and local officials presented the keys to the town and hosted a lavish supper that lasted until nearly daybreak. Maximilian and Carlota retired to a fine home owned by a wealthy hacendado, but there were no provisions for the members of the entourage. Some of the women found beds, but the men slept in chairs, in the carriages, or on the pavement. For most of the court staff, the bright lights, fireworks, and all-night celebrations meant another evening with little sleep.²³

Early on June 2, the royal party resumed its travels over the plateaus, through farm fields of corn, coffee, and fruit trees on the way to Orizaba, a short distance of about fifteen miles. Along the road, the sovereigns saw that people of every little village built arches of welcome over the roads, and most citizens wore a token of their arrival on their hats.²⁴

As they reached Orizaba, known for its loyalty to Juárez, thousands of native clansmen came forth from the town to meet them. They surrounded the royal coach to get a look in the carriage at the emperor and his young, beautiful wife. One group wanted to unhitch the mules from Maximilian’s carriage and draw it themselves, which he would not allow. For some of the Conservatives, it seemed a little surprising and disappointing that Maximilian bore no royal medals or jewels, and Carlota dressed simply in a brown silk dress, scarf, and hat, unlike the official images of them in full formal attire circulated before their arrival.²⁵

At the small fortification of Garita de Escamela at Orizaba, Maximilian addressed the prefect and the crowd assembled: The love with which our new country greets us profoundly moves us, and we think it a happy sign of an agreeable future. Many of Maximilian’s imperial supporters finally met them, including various ministers, ladies-in-waiting, and other attendants, who had waited to greet them there instead of risking a stay in pestilential Veracruz.²⁶

After a mass at the cathedral and a hymn of welcome and thanksgiving, or Te Deum, they toured the town looking at the panoramic views and the towering snowcapped cone of Mount Orizaba, the officials explaining its Nahuatl name, Citlaltépetl or Star Mountain. A group from the Naranjal community, an ancient and somewhat isolated region, had descended from their home in the mountains to hold a presentation for the royals and their attendants. Maximilian and Carlota were delighted and fascinated by their ceremonial attire, the men in silver embroidered tunics and short pants, machetes in their belts and heavy gold earrings. The women presented Carlota with a diamond ring said to be from the family of Montezuma, which she placed on her finger, with a promise to remember them always. They toured the nearby villages and heard speeches both in Nahuatl and Spanish. Thrilled with the frenzied greetings, Maximilian then spoke to the natives in Spanish while interpreters repeated the words in the native dialect. The empress presented 300 pesos to the municipal prefect for the local hospital and the poor. Later, during a tour of local convents and factories manufacturing paper and cotton products, they passed a group of unwelcoming but curious Liberals. Maximilian tipped his hat to them and they politely raised theirs in return. Those predisposed not to accept the royal couple could not deny their magnetism and charm.²⁷

The next morning, Carlota appeared in her riding habit, or traje de amazona, along with a sombrero, since she had chosen to cross the rugged mountains on horseback. For the ascent through the cumbres, they left Orizaba with an escort of French and Mexican imperial cavalry and other military numbering over a thousand men. Maximilian and Carlota admired the skill and finery of the Mexican riders accompanying them with their embroidered attire and silver saddles. After stopping at the village of Acultzingo for their first Mexican-style breakfast of tortillas, various sauces of mole and chile, along with pulque to drink, they continued to wind upward through the Sierra Madre to La Cañada (Morelos Cañada). Here the party learned that guerrillas had been lying in wait for them, but that they had been dispersed.²⁸

One carriage bearing the imperial staff took a detour, and the passengers saw the bodies of dead guerrillas killed by the imperial guards. The entourage climbed slowly through the cordilleras, and in the early evening the troops lit torches to see the narrow road. Everyone sat silent in their carriages as they bumped up the mountain path, listening for any attackers. Fireflies twinkled in the dense vegetation. Hours passed until they crossed the cumbres and arrived at La Cañada, most of the party exhausted. The next morning as they made their way through Palmar de Bravo, they could see in the distance for the first time the two volcanoes of Popocatépetl and Iztaccihuatl with their snowy peaks of 17,000 feet towering on the western horizon.²⁹

On June 5, as they approached the major Catholic center of Puebla de Los Angeles, a cavalcade of riders in full regalia, with silver saddles and bridles embroidered in metallic thread and tassels, rode out of the city to greet them. Many of the men carried their small sons with them on horseback. In the city, women and children in their finest attire cheered in the streets and from balconies. Banners fluttered from buildings and enormous arches decorated the streets. Bells pealed from the city’s numerous churches. Their enthusiasm reassured Maximilian, who was greatly moved by the passionate greetings and gladly returned their joy. The people of Puebla, a strong center of Conservatives with a population of 70,000, remained intensely curious about the royal couple, many feeling that Maximilian and Carlota would bring peace and prosperity after a decade of civil war. Priests, who only a year earlier hid from Juárez’s Liberals, joyously welcomed the monarchy, expecting a new era.³⁰

Everywhere in Puebla, the royal entourage could see the damage the city had incurred from the two intense battles fought in 1862 and 1863 between the French and Liberal forces, resulting in the establishment of the empire and Maximilian’s new career. Seeing that atonement was in order from the recent storms of artillery fire, Maximilian pledged his responsibility to restore the buildings in what remained an otherwise beautiful place. Also to demonstrate his magnanimity, he ordered the release of all the prisoners in the jail, even those awaiting death sentences for murder.³¹ This sort of clemency he enjoyed immensely.

They were to stay at a lavish home in Puebla, with separate festivities planned for the men and women. Carlota, with her attendants, attended a dinner party at the home of city prefect, Juan E. de Uriarte, but curiously, as she entered the house and was escorted into the dining room, the rest of the guests remained in the drawing room, staring expectantly. After a few awkward moments, someone explained that the empress must invite the guests to join her at the table, which she proceeded to do. During the meal, language difficulties strained conversations, with Carlota’s limited Spanish skills and only one woman knowing a little French. At the end of the meal, we sat looking at each other after supper for a long time before the company gave signs of departing, Paula Kollonitz explained. Carlota seemed unruffled, knowing such tensions could be expected with the arrival of the royal couple.³²

The next morning, June 7, Carlota marked her twenty-fourth birthday. The day began with a splendid celebration in Puebla with mass at the cathedral conducted by the bishop. Carlota gave 7,000 pesos to repair the local hospital, and Maximilian gave another 1,000 to found a maternity ward. That evening a large dinner at the presidio preceded a grand ball at the Alhóndiga, the old granary refitted as a place for public events. For the occasion, Carlota wore a white silk dress and a crown adorned with red and white roses encrusted with enamel, emeralds, and diamonds, the colors of the Mexican flag. A necklace of large white diamonds completed her stunning outfit. From the street, the royal couple walked over a carpet of flowers to the building’s portal. On the way, pyrotechnists ignited a sensational display of fireworks that blazed an image of the castle of Miramar. It seemed the whole town had taken to the streets to celebrate.³³

As the royal couple entered the building, they could see in the corners of the courtyard pyramids of crystal vases, built to look like the Aztec monuments, emitting various prismatic lights. Maximilian and Carlota seated themselves at two thrones built for the occasion. The guests participated in a quadrille, dancing until dawn, although the sovereigns retired at midnight, their usual habit of leaving well before a celebration’s end. The next morning, the royal couple bid town fathers adieu and donated additional funds to repair the almshouse. Carlota thanked them for a welcome, which on my birthday, makes me feel that I am among my own people, in my own country, surrounded by loving friends.³⁴

Moreover, this overland journey to Mexico City revealed to Maximilian, and especially Carlota, the great disparity in wealth and privilege that plagued Mexico. Everything in this country has got to be begun all over again; one finds nothing but nature, whether in the physical or in the moral order. Their education has to be undertaken down to the smallest details, Carlota wrote Eugénie, empress of France. She seemed bothered by the segregation between the people of European origins and the native peoples.

Outside the towns, one does not find a single white person. It is like the wave of an enchanter’s wand. No sooner does one arrive in a place of importance than one finds prefects with embroidered uniforms and tricolor sashes, almost as in France, except that the embroideries are gold. It forms quite a strange contrast to the rest of the country. . . . Nearby all the Indians can read and write, they are in the highest degree intelligent and, if the clergy instructed as they ought, they would be an enlightened race. . . . The priests do not even teach the catechism in the schools . . . and that is at Puebla, the clerical town par excellence. . . . The ephemeral governments which have succeeded one another for the past forty years have never been more than minorities supplanted by other minorities, for they have never had any root in the Indian population, which is the only one which works and which enables the state to live.³⁵

But Carlota knew very little about the man they had come to displace, Benito Juárez, himself from indigenous origins.

Mounted civilians from Puebla accompanied them to Cholula, guiding the royal party to the extraordinary town with its great pyramids. They viewed the church Nuestra Señora de los Remedios, which sat atop the area’s largest temple, set against an impressive backdrop of the icy altitudes of the volcanoes. Girls pressed forward through the crowds with flowers. Maximilian and Carlota stayed at a small hotel in San Martín Zoquiapan, six miles north, where they were given a dinner in their honor by Gen. Tomás Mejía, an ultra-Catholic pure-blooded native Otomí, so vital to the Imperialist mission and fiercely loyal to its cause. Maximilian, who had heard a great deal about Mejía’s bravery, little knew how much he would come to depend on this general’s staunch support.³⁶

As they greeted their supporters and came to know more about the military and skeletal governmental provisions made by the regents, they became more confident. According to all I have seen, remarked Carlota, a monarchy is feasible in this country and responds to the unanimous needs of the people; nonetheless, however, it remains a gigantic experiment, for we have to struggle against the wilderness, distance, the roads, and the most utter chaos. The level of civilization in this country presents astonishing contrasts.³⁷

Early the next morning, as the entourage ascended the hills toward the plateau of Anáhuac, the native name for the valley of Mexico, they forded rivers and struggled through ankle-deep mud when a carriage wheel broke near the pine-shrouded station of Río Frío. After repairs, the small caravan soon descended into the Valley of Mexico. Winding slowly down the steep mountain road, they could see stunning views of the volcanoes and grasslands. In the distance appeared the City of Mexico, beautiful with its church towers and tall trees, surrounded by immense lakes.³⁸

On June 11, as they neared Mexico City, Maximilian and Carlota stopped at the Villa de Guadalupe to attend mass at the legendary church of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, the site of pilgrimages to honor the Virgin Mary, said to have appeared to the campesino Juan Diego in 1531. At the church, Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Dávalos, the archbishop of Mexico, along with other clerical hierarchy who had eagerly awaited the couple’s arrival, conducted a thanksgiving mass. Recently having returned from forced exile in Europe, the forty-eight-year-old Labastida, with his crooked smile, introduced the royal couple to the presbytery and then invited them to two thrones. After reciting the Domine Salvum fac Imperatorum (God Save Our Emperor), the priests gave a tour and Maximilian and Carlota partook water from the sacred well of the church. Maximilian replied to the gathered officials: I happily receive congratulations, and I salute you with the effusion of one who loves you, and has identified his fate with yours.³⁹

When Maximilian and Carlota emerged from the shrine, they saw hundreds of people who had ridden out from Mexico City to welcome them. Attired in their finest black suits and gloves, the men on horseback and women in carriages, all cheered ¡Viva Maximiliano primero!, ¡Viva Napoléon tercero! The crowd sounded out a salute to them and the newborn empire of Mexico, along with a few speakers who praised the archduke’s plan to rejuvenate the country. A woman representing the assembly’s wives read a statement to Carlota, with your Majesty and your august husband, who are the objects of public admiration, and the delight of this vast Empire, commences the dynasty which takes the name of your new country. It will be able to figure by the side of the country of Charles V and Mary Teresa, [and] by that of . . . Napoléon III.⁴⁰

From among the crowd, Marshal Achille Bazaine, chief of the French military, and Marquis Charles F. Montholon, the French minister to Mexico, looked upon the royal couple. They made their way to the church’s domed chapter house where Maximilian met Bazaine for the first time, the beginning of their conflicted but mutually respectful relationship.⁴¹

Carlota related the overwhelming experience of finding their purpose in Mexico to Eugénie:

If ever a country [Mexico] was miraculously saved from a condition out of which it would never have emerged, it is indeed this one; it knows this and understands it, and gives proof of it by its ever-increasing joy and the affectionate welcome which it has given us. This is due to the freedom of expressing its opinions restored to it by France. . . . There were great shouts of Long live Maximilian the First, Long live Napoleon the Third, and the crowd raised their great sombreros and answered: May he live long (Que Viva). The sight of the Virgin of Guadalupe touched me greatly . . . [as if] a great act of historic reparation [was] . . . rendered to the Indians by a descendant of Charles the Fifth on the point of ascending the throne of Montezuma.⁴²

The next morning, June 12, the one-year anniversary of the French army’s occupation of Mexico City, Maximilian and Carlota entered the capital by rail. Maximilian wore the formal uniform of an imperial Mexican general with the ensign of the master of the Royal Order of Guadalupe and gold collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece. For the occasion, Carlota dressed in a gown of blue and white silk, a blue scarf, and a hat decorated with fresh flowers. They boarded carriages and began a long, stately cavalcade through the streets. The lavish procession, led by the Mexican Imperial Guard under command of Col. Miguel López, commenced according to protocol dictated by Maximilian. The elite French and Mexican lancers with their gold and silver burnished arms and uniforms followed the imperial guard. The Algerian Zouaves in their colorful uniform of red baggy trousers, cropped jacket, and fez followed, along with the Chasseurs d’Afrique in riding clothes embellished in galonné. The Italian gilded royal coach, with its beveled glass, carved angels and wood scrolls, velvet with gold fringe, and red leather doors embossed with the crest of Imperial Mexico, followed, bearing Maximilian and Carlota, the coachmen driving four white, brilliantly caparisoned horses deliberately and slowly. Behind them rode the heavy-eyed Achille Bazaine at the coach’s right door, sword drawn, followed by other French officers in similar fashion, sixty carriages of dignitaries, and various French companies with their officers. The swarming crowds cheered, many waving from balconies and windows rented for a glimpse of the royal couple. The streets, decorated with banners, flags, and hundreds of arches of orange blossoms, ribbons, roses, along with portraits of the royal couple, overflowed with revelers. People in fine clothing, polished carriages, and men in silver embroidered sombreros on horseback whistled and waved at them as they passed. Booming cannon, band music, and church bells added to the celebration.⁴³

Emperor Maximilian and Empress Carlota enter Mexico City, June 12, 1864

Emperor Maximilian and Empress Carlota enter Mexico City, June 12, 1864

The people of Mexico City had seen many strident and arrogant leaders come and go, but the day of the arrival of Maximilian and Carlota differed greatly, as even the jaded editor of the partisan French newspaper L’Estafette commented, "Today, there was neither clamor, nor boasting, nor a single cry of revenge. All the ‘Vivas’ seemed to come from the heart, inspired by a genuine emotion at the sight of these young sovereigns so confident and trusting in their love. And the most touching thing of all was the way in which everyone has made an effort to give them a worthy reception. Even in . . . the outlying districts, far from the center, there was hardly a house that had not made some attempt at decoration—a wreath of leaves, a branch of palm, or a few brightly colored rags. And these humble efforts were as heart-warming as the opulent decorations of the great palaces." The French considered this welcome the consecration of Maximilian’s election and that the Republicans, including Juárez, would yield.⁴⁴

The municipal prefect, Miguel María Azcárate, officially welcomed Maximilian and Carlota with gold keys to the city created by a local artist. The royal couple proceeded by carriage to the National Cathedral through the Zócalo, the central plaza, where Archbishop Labastida escorted them inside. Over the cathedral doors, the people of the floating gardens had installed an array of yellow, red, and white flowers that read, Xochimilco to his Imperial Majesty Maximilian I. The royal couple and the Catholic entourage entered the cathedral quietly amid the glowing candles and decorations bathed in cochineal red and gold. State banners representing Austria, Belgium, France, and Mexico lined the walls. Maximilian and Carlota settled upon throne prepared for the occasion, and the archbishop began the Te Deum and mass accompanied by an orchestra and choir.⁴⁵

Afterward, Maximilian and Carlota followed a carpeted walkway under a canopy to the National Palace. There they received a long stream of diplomats and dignitaries, members of the acting government and military, including Marshal Bazaine. Toward evening, a formal investiture was held in the palace, with Maximilian in formal attire and Carlota in her diamond crown with a mantilla of Brussels lace. She also wore royal heirlooms of the Habsburg and Bourbon families. The entire party viewed the oil lamps of the city, lit very brightly for their arrival. Fireworks boomed through the night air. The people in the plaza continually called to the royal couple, Let our Emperor come out! The crowd cheered ¡Viva el Emperador! and Vive l’Empereur! with great clamor, shouting, and sincerity. To Maximilian, it all seemed magnificent in the land where his ancestor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, king of Castile and Aragón, ruler of Austrian lands, Flanders, Brabant, and Holland, Burgundy, and Naples, or roughly half of Europe, laid claim to the crown of Montezuma in 1519. Hernando Cortés referred to Charles as your Majesty to whom the whole world is subject.⁴⁶

The next two weeks of festivities included dramatic performances, operas, fireworks, acrobatics, bullfights, and horsemanship exhibitions including coleaderos, offering a competition of Mexican cattle working on the haciendas. Maximilian and Carlota attended most of the events, which gave the people another chance of seeing them take possession of their realm, as they attempted to win their hearts. At the first performance held in their honor at the national theater, Maximilian and Carlota arrived on time only to find the place rather empty, because the other invited guests were accustomed to arriving late, much to the embarrassment of the Mexican ministers. Soon the new sovereigns understood the cultural differences in marking time, and the Mexican ministers and staff did their best to be punctual and adopt European customs. The festivities ended with a gala ball given by Bazaine, with Carlota remaining too shy to dance the quadrille.⁴⁷

The couple spent their first weeks in the crumbling National Palace, little changed or maintained over the last forty years, which remained in disarray. Upon their arrival, attendants of the household hurried about, installing new furnishings, rushing the carpenters who hammered away, painting and cleaning. Despite the expedited effort, the palace remained dusty and disordered. Maximilian spent one night on the billiard table, driven from his quarters by mites and bedbugs, and Carlota slept on a terrace.⁴⁸

In all, it was a tumultuous and adventurous welcome to the capital. After long and arduous negotiations, the voyage across the Atlantic, and the bone-jarring journey from Veracruz, Maximilian and Carlota arrived as foreigners come to lead a troubled land amid improbable circumstances.

1

The Right of Kings

Ferdinand Maximilian von Habsburg, the son of the Austrian Archduke Franz Karl and Archduchess Sophie, a princess from the royal Bavarian family of Wittelsbach, was born on July 6, 1832, at the summer palace of Schönbrunn, three miles from the heart of Vienna. Maximilian’s older brother, Franz Josef, who later became emperor of Austria, was born two years earlier, while younger brother Karl Ludwig arrived the year after Maximilian, and another brother, Ludwig Victor, was born nine years later. Maximilian’s baby sister, Maria Anna Karolina, born in 1835, died at the age of four.¹

Sophie considered Maximilian playful, intelligent, the most tenderhearted of all her children, and a loving son. She described him at the age of three as an energetic, darling, and happy child. In his long white trousers and loose white shirt, Maxl flutters round me like a great white butterfly, said Sophie, his behavior very different from Franz Josef, who displayed discipline and rigidness even as a boy. When, at the age of seven, Maximilian suffered with his mother in her grief at the death of his sister, he struggled to console her and amend the tragic disruption in their family. To make things right again, the boy saved his money and bought his mother a pet monkey, saying, I cannot buy you another little girl but at least I can buy you a monkey.²

The 500-acre Schönbrunn lands were originally occupied by a hunting lodge and enlarged in the eighteenth century into a magnificent residence of 1,400 rooms. There, Maximilian became a keen reader, thirsty for knowledge of art, science, and great literature taught by some of the greatest minds in the country. One important teacher, the eccentric Heinrich Bombelles, instructed the children to avoid bigotry or piousness because it interfered with true faith. He discouraged the praying or carrying of rosaries, which he considered fetishism and mechanical prayer. His lessons resonated with Maximilian. While Franz Josef became the industrious student, Maximilian, however, often liked to play practical jokes or find ways to challenge his tutors, feeling superior to some of them. He nicknamed his teachers, calling one stuffy French professor Monsieur Foppabile. But he respected his literature teacher, Charles Gaulis Clairmont, the half-brother of Mary Shelley, who held the chair of English Literature at the Vienna University. His lessons captivated Maximilian’s imagination, and he enjoyed English poetry.³

Since Maximilian suffered frequent and recurrent illnesses, his mother urged him to be athletic, along with her other sons, to gain strength and resilience. The children played outdoors and learned various equestrian arts. In time, Maximilian became an accomplished horseman with a love for speed and danger. To walk one’s horse is death, to trot is life, a gallop is bliss, said Maximilian. Speed and new technologies fascinated the young student. If the theories about the air-balloon become a reality, I shall take to flying, he said. However, the young prince immersed himself in a variety of subjects, passionately longing for great adventures around the world.⁴

Maximilian developed impeccable manners and charm but loved play-acting and drama, which made him more popular than the competitive Franz Josef. He became known as the most spirited of the brothers. In family presentations, he captivated his relatives with his theatrical and comic interpretations. Despite the Habsburg characteristic of a long jaw, overbite, and upper lip that somewhat drooped over the lower, which produced the appearance of an almost pouting expression, Maximilian stood out as the handsome, hearty, and much livelier brother, which his mother, Sophie, attributed to her side of the family.⁵

Maximilian’s father, Franz Karl, was a weak man, considered not much more capable than his older, epileptic brother, the Emperor Ferdinand. His life was spent languishing in a lackluster court dominated and administered by the powerful Prince Richard Klemens von Metternich. At the time, the Austrian Empire extended from Romania in the east, north to the province of Galicia, in modern-day Poland, to Hungary, the western part of the Ukraine, west to the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia in northern Italy, and south along the Balkan Peninsula on the Adriatic Sea to modern Bosnia and Herzegovina.⁶

As the glories of the old Austrian Empire faded within the vacuum of moldering sovereign leadership, the royal Habsburgs sought to hide the family’s internal debility. Powerful grand dame Archduchess Sophie wisely and realistically assessed the situation and knew the key to preserving the empire lay in promoting her firstborn son as candidate for emperor. At seventeen, Franz Josef, with his particular seriousness and discipline, enrolled in the Austrian army to help crush the Revolution of 1848, repressing turmoil in a number of regions that rejected Habsburg authority. His commanding officer, eighty-two-year-old Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky, a national icon, prevailed in a number of difficult Austrian victories over Italian revolutionaries. When radical mobs attacked Vienna, the uprisings were violently quashed, and the instigators, including the women, were shot or whipped, punishments Maximilian abhorred and opposed.⁷

However, this rigid military training helped to shape and further discipline Franz Josef, making him, as the Habsburgs saw it, a worthy disciple trained to carry on the empire’s values and vigor. At the end of 1848, Sophie managed to persuade her husband, Franz Karl, to renounce his rights of succession in favor of installing his son as emperor. More importantly, Franz Karl coaxed his brother, the sitting Emperor Ferdinand, Franz Josef’s uncle, to abdicate his crown. Franz Josef was invested as emperor in December at the age of eighteen. Despite the joy surrounding the revitalization of the Austrian throne, Maximilian resented the lavish attention bestowed on his brother Franz Josef, whom he considered pedantic and a dull doctrinaire. Yet he longed to be an advisor to his brother and sought a role in ruling the empire, but Franz Josef, by then consumed in learning and leadership, refused to consider the idea.⁸

Maximilian’s ruling philosophies varied greatly from the draconian policies embraced by his brother and carried out on the empire’s own people. He condemned the hasty execution of radicals, simply because they expressed their desire for something different. He remained independent: an explorer, anthropologist, and amateur botanist as well as a devoted, open-minded supplicant of the Catholic Church.⁹

Maximilian embraced honesty, trustworthiness, and honor as his basic tenets, his Habsburg inheritance. He wrote a personal moral guide of twenty-seven pieces of advice to himself, a lexicon of credos, on a small card:

Let the mind rule the body and maintain it in moderation and morality; Never a false word, not even out of necessity or vanity; Be kind to everybody; Justice in all things whatsoever; Don’t answer without reflection, lest one fall into a snare; Nothing offensive, even when it is a sign of wit, for corners tear things; No superstition, for it is the fruit of fear and weakness; Never joke with one’s inferiors, never converse with the servants; Take thought and show delicate consideration for those around one, pay them attentions; When in the right, iron energy in everything; Never scoff at religion or authority; Listen to all, trust few; Never complain, for it is a sign of weakness; Always make a good division of one’s time, plenty of regular employment; In judging others’ faults, remember one’s own; When taking any step think of the consequences; Take it coolly (this he wrote in English); Nothing lasts forever; Keep silence if you can do no better; Two hours’ exercise daily.¹⁰

Through his teens and twenties, he kept journals and wrote copious letters to his family that revealed his longing for adventure, his harsh judgments on other royal courts’ poor standards of protocol, along with the thoughts of an impressionable young man, romantic and sensitive. He could be light, humorous, turn ironic phrases, and, like a typical Viennese, he loved music. He generally liked people, often overlooking their political agendas or duplicity, and with his mind open to options, he could easily be persuaded. He could also be impulsive, willful, stubborn, and given to dark moods and malaise. In time, he developed the habit of withdrawing from public until such episodes passed. Despite these tendencies, when he was confronted with decisions, he placed duty above all his personal whims. These juxtapositions in his character created enormous ironies all his life, of which he was well aware but did not explain or attempt to avoid.¹¹

When he was nineteen, Maximilian’s family sent him on a diplomatic tour of Europe and the Mediterranean to meet various royal cousins and learn about their courts and realms. As Habsburg blood ran through nearly each royal dynastic court in Europe, he easily sought out relatives in nearly every country. This tendency to marry into rather than conquer other sovereign lines resulted in the family maxim: Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry.¹²

On his mission, his first of many voyages on Austria’s flagship, the Novara, the name itself a good omen to every Austrian, he sailed to Italy, Spain, and Portugal. I was going to realize my much longed-for desire—a voyage at sea. . . . This moment was one of great excitement to me, Maximilian wrote. He observed the way rulers treated their subjects and institutions of these countries. There he observed the government, style of rule, and the institutions of these countries. More importantly, he learned the ways of a seaman, navigating in open waters and maneuvering into ports. He had trained with the Austrian navy for a year, and these travels only helped to fuel his desire to explore the world.¹³

His commanding admiral, Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, observed that young Maximilian was a natural mariner and impressive administrator. In 1854, at the age of twenty-two, Maximilian became the commander-in-chief of the Austrian navy. In this role, he oversaw improvements to the port at Trieste on the northern Istrian coast of the Adriatic Sea and then was assigned to sail the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. As a scholar of Greek and Roman history, he scouted out opportunities to explore the geographic locations he had studied. He visited ports in Albania, Greece, Turkey, Egypt, and Morocco as well as areas of Palestine and modern-day Israel. Maximilian became fascinated with the people he encountered, especially wizened sailors who told their war adventures. An old pirate who had once tortured Turkish soldiers during Greece’s war for independence especially influenced his view of sea warfare. He interviewed Albanian natives before sailing on to visit his mother’s cousin, King Otto of Greece, a former prince from Bavaria. At Smyrna, he was embarrassed to see naked slave girls in the local market. Arriving in Gibraltar, he dined with the British governor and naval officers, who maintained their territory with a heavy hand, often refusing refugees from nearby Spain. After dinner, the young archduke retreated with the other officers to drink port and smoke, while the women were sent into another room, a tradition he thought appropriate.¹⁴

Yet in Spain, however, he marveled at the women who were more liberated. While attending a bullfight in Seville, he was awed by their active participation. The young bellezas did not faint from the sight of blood but cajoled the matador to kill the bull. Along with his fascination for the stunning girls, he took pride in his Habsburg heritage, learning more about his ancestors Ferdinand I, the Holy Roman Emperor, and Charles V, king of Spain and Christian ruler of Mexico. He came to a fuller understanding of their family motto, Plus Ultra (further beyond).¹⁵

On his tour, while meeting many beautiful women, he began to swoon over a few of them, thinking of them as possible mates. In Lisbon, he fell in love with a cousin, Maria Amalia of Brazil, and planned to marry her. Sadly, soon after his return to Austria, she died from consumption. When he developed an infatuation with the daughter of an Austrian count, she was deemed too low in rank to marry him. According to protocol, Maximilian had to obtain his brother’s approval in marriage, and he had to be mindful of any girl’s background and royal status.¹⁶ The young naval officer could only focus on his work in the navy and wait.

Meanwhile, in April 1854, in a lavish church ceremony, his twenty-four-year-old brother Franz Josef married the beautiful Princess Elisabeth (Sisi) of Bavaria. Although his mother, Sophie, meant that he should marry the girl’s sister, Franz Josef fell deeply in love with the stunningly alluring fifteen-year-old girl, who had a strong and independent personality, and she quickly became devoted to her spouse and her new status as the empress of Austria.¹⁷

Two years later, the Austrian court sent Maximilian on another diplomatic mission to meet France’s Emperor Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (Napoléon III) and his wife, the Empress Eugénie. This imposing assignment would forever change his life. Louis-Napoléon, a firebrand, was born on April 20, 1808, the son of Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, who was also the brother of Napoléon I. In 1848, after the abdication of King Louis Philippe and Queen Marie-Amélie of France (the grandparents of Carlota of Belgium, then Mexico), cocksure Louis-Napoléon rose to power with the establishment of the Second Republic. After initially winning the presidency of France, on November 7, 1852, the senate replaced the republic with an empire and reestablished the title of emperor. Louis-Napoléon took the name Napoléon III, in the tradition of his Bonaparte uncle, Napoléon I.¹⁸

The callow Maximilian considered Napoléon a pretender and a newcomer, or parvenu, as he referred to him in his letters home to his brother, but restrained his personal opinions knowing that Austria must maintain good relations with powerful France. Maximilian thought the French leader more closely resembled a circus master with a riding whip than an emperor with a scepter. From the venue of his young years, Maximilian had little idea how an emperor should comport himself but knew Napoléon’s style differed greatly from Franz Josef’s. Nonetheless, he admired Eugénie as royal, attractive, polite, terming her quite a thoroughbred.¹⁹

During Maximilian’s first evening at the summer retreat of Château de Saint Cloud near Paris, Napoléon seemed distracted, uncomfortable, and nervous around the young archduke and his staff. Eugénie did not dine with them, so Maximilian spent a good portion of the evening trying to compensate for the lack of conversation. Maximilian read Napoléon as a leader hostile to the old guard, shy, and defensive; a man with a shuffling gait, standing small and unimposing, twirling his moustache. The next day, however, the two men met in the palace’s famous orangery and talked of matters of state, the Crimean War, Russia and its Danubian principalities, and strategies of what Austria could do with regard to Turkey, Albania, and Herzegovina. Napoléon stressed that Austria and France must remain on good terms, despite his belief that the Habsburgs’ methods of maintaining their large empire were misguided.²⁰

Napoléon III (Louis Napoléon), emperor of France, ca. 1865

Napoléon III (Louis Napoléon), emperor of France, ca. 1865

Through the remainder of Maximilian’s stay, a series of parties in his honor included bawdy entertainment with the court ladies present, which he thought low class. Napoléon, known for his susceptibility to beautiful girls and his love affairs, blatantly flirted with the women. When Napoléon and Eugénie held a formal ball in Maximilian’s honor, he wrote later, the company was unbelievably mixed, and distinguished by their disgusting dress and tasteless behavior. Adventurers swarmed. He continued, One can see, moreover, that his suite [entourage] has formerly been that of a president of a republic, it is often hard for them to maintain themselves on a proper level. The behavior of the court ladies toward the empress, too, their shaking hands with her, their hearty friendliness, are a little shocking to our ideas of imperial etiquette.²¹

However, during his visit Maximilian began to see Napoléon’s vision. The French emperor worked exhaustively to redesign Paris with Georges-Eugène Haussmann, in hopes of bringing order, peace, beauty, power, and prestige to the capital in a massive rebuilding scheme, to rival Rome. To modernize the city from its rough, rambling pathways to one of symmetry, avenues were widened and fortified, and parks and public centers built. Maximilian at first viewed this project as pretention but came to appreciate Napoléon’s