The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking 3319630598, 9783319630595, 9783319630588
This handbook is an international, comprehensive, reference tool in the field of trafficking in people and slavery. It c...
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Table of contents :

Preface......Page 5

Outline of the Handbook......Page 7

References......Page 8

Acknowledgments......Page 9

Contents......Page 11

Editors Biography......Page 21

Contributors......Page 23

Part I: Legacies of Slavery and Human Trafficking......Page 30

1 Understanding Historical Slavery, Its Legacies, and Its Lessons for Combating Modern-Day Slavery and Human Trafficking......Page 31

Introduction......Page 32

A Brief History of Transatlantic Slavery......Page 33

The Reparations Debate......Page 37

Modern-Day Slavery and Abolitionism......Page 39

References......Page 42

Introduction......Page 47

Historical Background......Page 48

Part 1: Tacky´s Rebellion......Page 49

Part 2: The Baptist War......Page 53

Conclusion......Page 59

References......Page 60

From the British National Archives in Kew, London......Page 61

3 Concepts of Slavery in the United States 1865-1914......Page 63

Slavery Within the United States: Coerced Labor Continued and the Nation Fails to Understand Its Past......Page 66

Antislavery Imperialism: The Influence of the International Context......Page 68

Racism Evolving: Othering the Slave, Othering the Slave Owner......Page 71

Slavery: White Slavery and Gender - A New Phenomenon?......Page 74

Conclusion......Page 76

References......Page 77

4 When Freeing the Slaves Was Illegal: ``Reverse-Trafficking´´ and the Unholy, Unruly Rule of Law......Page 79

Introduction......Page 80

A Most ``Peculiar Institution´´: A Genealogy of Slaveholder Law......Page 82

Enter the Underground Railroad......Page 85

Sidestepping Blame......Page 87

The Problem with Heroes......Page 89

In Conclusion: Discomforting Parallels and Unintended Consequences......Page 91

References......Page 92

5 International Legislation on White Slavery and Anti-trafficking in the Early Twentieth Century......Page 95

Introduction......Page 96

The Vigilance Movement and the Origins of White Slavery Accords......Page 97

International Agreement for the Suppression of the ``White Slave Traffic´´ and Its Enforcement......Page 98

The International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic 1910......Page 100

De-racializing the White Slave Trade: The League of Nations´ Action on Trafficking......Page 101

International Law After 1921: Toward Abolitionism......Page 103

Conclusion......Page 104

References......Page 105

6 Historical Evolution of the International Legal Responses to the Trafficking of Children: A Critique......Page 107

Introduction......Page 108

Childhood and Children´s Rights......Page 109

The International Legal Regulation of ``White Slavery´´......Page 110

International Conference on Traffic in Women and Children 1921......Page 111

The International Convention for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children 1921......Page 113

The League of Nations Registry Files 1919-1927......Page 114

Traffic in Women and Children Summary of Annual Reports 1927 and 1928: State Responses to Question 8......Page 116

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989......Page 117

Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (OPSC) 2000......Page 119

Optional Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children 2000......Page 120

Children and the Trafficking Protocol......Page 121

Conclusion......Page 122

References......Page 123

7 Human Trafficking in Canada as a Historical Continuation of the 1980s and 1990s Panics over Youth in Sex Trade......Page 124

Introduction......Page 125

Historical Predecessors: ``White Slavery´´ and Concerns over Youth in Sex Work......Page 126

Policing Trafficking......Page 128

Protection and Criminalization......Page 130

Conclusion......Page 136

References......Page 137

Media......Page 139

8 Portugal and Human Trafficking (1822-2018)......Page 141

A Rhetoric of Reaction and Colonial Project......Page 143

White Slave Trade Against Black Slave Trade?......Page 145

Protect Emigrants or Curtail the Right of Movement?......Page 147

Emigration as a Threat......Page 148

The Paths of Clandestine Emigration......Page 149

Smoke and Mirrors......Page 150

Epilogue: Human Trafficking, Democracy, and Europeanization......Page 152

References......Page 155

9 The Nebulous Definition of Slavery: Legal Versus Sociological Definitions of Slavery......Page 157

The International Law on Slavery......Page 158

The Legal Definition of Slavery Included in the 1926 Slavery Convention......Page 160

The Blurred Boundaries Between the Legal Definitions of Slavery, the Practices Similar to Slavery, Servitude, and Forced Labor......Page 163

The Sociological Definitions of Slavery......Page 166

Conclusion......Page 168

References......Page 169

Part II: Explanations and Methods of Inquiry......Page 171

10 Measuring the Nature and Prevalence of Human Trafficking......Page 172

Challenges to Measuring Trafficking in Persons......Page 173

Estimation Strategies Using Open-Source Information and Capture-Recapture Principles......Page 175

Multiple System Estimation......Page 177

Local Surveys or Field Observations......Page 178

Using Online Domain Data and Network Information to Measure Human Trafficking......Page 180

The Way Forward in Measuring Human Trafficking?......Page 182

References......Page 184

11 The UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons: An Aspirational Tool with Great Potential......Page 188

Background on UNODC Global Report on Human Trafficking......Page 189

Strengths......Page 190

Detected Cases as a Unit of Analysis......Page 191

Self-Reporting Bias......Page 192

Minimizing the Effects of Self-Reporting Bias......Page 194

Non-survey Data Supplements......Page 195

Purpose Statement......Page 196

Potential for Dual Functionality......Page 197

Conclusion......Page 198

References......Page 199

Further Reading......Page 200

12 Ethical Considerations for Studying Human Trafficking......Page 202

Methods and Research Design......Page 203

Negotiating Access......Page 206

The Researcher´s Position......Page 210

Data Collection......Page 212

Representation......Page 216

References......Page 217

13 Developing a Universal Standard of Care for Victims of Trafficking Under the Guiding Principles of Non-state Torture......Page 220

International Human Rights Law Regarding Torture......Page 221

The Nexus of Human Trafficking and Torture: Tactics of Coercion, Abuse, and Torture Used by Traffickers......Page 223

Symptomology of Trafficking and Torture Observed in Its Victims......Page 225

Optimizing Care for Victims of Trafficking: Utilizing Field-Based Standards and Guiding Principles......Page 227

References......Page 229

Further Reading......Page 230

14 Genealogies of Slavery......Page 231

Introduction......Page 232

Genealogy......Page 234

Case Law and Slavery Discourses......Page 237

Siliadin v. France, No. 73316/01, ECtHR 2005-VII......Page 238

Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia, No. 25965/04, ECtHR 2010......Page 240

L.E. v. Greece, No. 71545/12, ECtHR 2016......Page 241

SDGs and Slavery Discourses......Page 243

The UK, Slavery, and the SDGs......Page 245

Conclusion......Page 246

References......Page 247

Case Law......Page 249

15 ``No More Interviews Please´´: Experiences of Trafficking Survivors in Nepal......Page 250

Introduction/Context......Page 251

Praxis: Participatory Action Inquiry......Page 252

Reintegration of Trafficking Survivors......Page 253

Gender Oppression......Page 255

Systemic Enablers of Oppressions......Page 256

Research, Publications, and the Media......Page 257

Rehabilitative Centers......Page 260

Stigmatization Prevention......Page 261

Unpacking and Reconceptualizing Successful Reintegration......Page 262

Conclusion......Page 264

References......Page 266

16 A Comprehensive Gender Framework to Evaluate Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 269

Introduction......Page 270

The USDOS TIP Report and Measurement of National Anti-trafficking Efforts......Page 271

Criticisms Around the TIP Report......Page 274

Descriptions of Multilayer Framework to Evaluate Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 276

Evaluation of the First P: Prevention of Trafficking Under the Policy......Page 278

Evaluation of the Second P: Protection of Trafficking Victims......Page 279

Evaluation of the Third P: Prosecution of Traffickers......Page 280

Evaluation of the Fourth P: Prosecution of Traffickers......Page 281

Section 2: The Multi-pillar Gender-Sensitive Evaluation of Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 283

Section 3: Gender Construction Analysis of Policies and Programs......Page 286

Conclusion......Page 287

References......Page 288

17 Establishing the Constituent Elements of Trafficking in Persons: Conceptualizing ``Transnationality´´ and ``Involvement by .........Page 292

Introduction......Page 293

The Purpose of Clarification......Page 294

The Codification of Transnational (Organized) Crimes Under International Law......Page 295

Interpretational Tension and Identifying the Definitional Contours of Trafficking in Persons......Page 298

An Interpretational Way Forward?......Page 301

References......Page 302

Part III: Types of Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 305

18 The Challenge of Addressing Both Forced Labor and Sexual Exploitation......Page 306

Introduction......Page 307

Practical Insights on the Long-Lasting Definitional Debates Around Trafficking......Page 308

Addressing Different Types of Trafficking: Need for More Divergence or Convergence?......Page 310

Labor Trafficking: Still Under-detected? Or Rather Called by Another Name?......Page 311

Including Labor Trafficking Means Working with ``New´´ Actors......Page 312

Between National and International Cases of Trafficking......Page 314

The Delicate Collaboration with Law Enforcement for Undocumented Migrants......Page 315

The Gender Bias......Page 316

Combined Efforts to Tackle Multiple Forms of Trafficking: What Are the Advantages, Then?......Page 317

Conclusion......Page 318

References......Page 319

19 Telling Victims from Criminals: Human Trafficking for the Purposes of Criminal Exploitation......Page 322

Introduction: Broadening the Concept of Human Trafficking......Page 323

Forced Criminality as a Purpose of Human Trafficking......Page 324

Drug Crimes......Page 326

Property Crimes......Page 327

Violent Crimes......Page 328

Specific Difficulties Related to Victim Identification......Page 329

Lack of Victims´ Self-Identification......Page 330

Lack of Trust in the Police......Page 331

Non-punishment of Victims of Human Trafficking for the Purposes of Forced Criminality......Page 332

Conclusion......Page 335

References......Page 336

20 Trafficking of Human Beings for Organ (Cells and Tissue) Removal......Page 338

Organ (Cells and Tissue) Removal - An Exploitative Form of Trafficking of Human Beings (THB)......Page 339

United Nations Convention......Page 340

European Union Directive......Page 341

Limited Availability of Data......Page 342

Differentiating ``Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal´´ from ``Organ Trafficking´´......Page 343

Typical Cases of Living Organ Donation......Page 344

Reported Cases of Organ Removal from the Deceased......Page 345

The Role of Medical Professionals and the Involvement of Clinics......Page 346

Recipients as Offenders?......Page 347

Poorly Educated Victims - The Problem of Informed Consent......Page 348

The Challenges in Trying to Identify the Victims......Page 349

Conclusions: Strategies for Preventing Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 350

Excursus: Reasons for Organ Shortages......Page 351

Increasing Identification Rate......Page 352

References......Page 353

Legal Frameworks......Page 355

21 Defining Child Trafficking for Labor Exploitation, Forced Child Labor, and Child Labor......Page 357

Introduction......Page 358

Child Work......Page 359

Child Labor......Page 360

Forced Child Labor......Page 363

Child Trafficking for Labor Exploitation......Page 364

References......Page 367

22 Domestic Sex Trafficking of Children......Page 370

Children at Risk for Being Trafficked......Page 373

Poverty......Page 374

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) Youth......Page 375

Sex and Gender......Page 376

Maltreatment......Page 377

Forms of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking......Page 378

Gang-Controlled Trafficking......Page 379

Family-Controlled Trafficking......Page 380

Assisting Youth in Exiting the Life......Page 381

Services for Survivors......Page 382

Conclusion......Page 383

References......Page 384

23 The Spoiled Supply Chain of Child Labor......Page 388

Children: A Vulnerable Population for Slave Labor in Western Africa......Page 389

Life on the Cocoa Plantation......Page 391

Supply and Demand......Page 392

Nestlé´s Creating Shared Values......Page 393

Creating Shared Values and Child Labor Speculations......Page 394

Solutions for the Cocoa Industry......Page 396

Conclusion......Page 397

References......Page 398

24 Dynamics of Child Labor Trafficking in Southeast Asia: India......Page 400

Nature and Extent of Child Labor Trafficking Globally......Page 401

Children Trafficked for Sexual Exploitation......Page 402

Child Exploitation for Labor and Other Services......Page 403

Nature and Extent of Child Labor Trafficking in India......Page 404

International Laws and Conventions and Child Labor Trafficking in India......Page 405

Child Trafficking Inside and Outside of India......Page 407

Dynamics of Child Labor......Page 408

Social, Cultural, and Structural Dynamics......Page 410

Urbanization......Page 411

Suggestions for Control and Prevention......Page 412

Modification and Enforcement of Existing Child Protection Laws......Page 413

Efforts Should Begin at the Grassroot Level......Page 414

References......Page 415

25 Child Trafficking for Adoption Purposes: A Criminological Analysis of the Illegal Adoption Market......Page 418

The Basic Logic of Routine Activity Theory......Page 419

Demand Component......Page 420

Supply Component......Page 422

Social Control Component......Page 424

Criminogenic Asymmetries Between Demand and Source Countries......Page 427

Cycles of Abuse and Displacements Effects of Supply Reduction......Page 430

Conclusion......Page 431

References......Page 432

26 Trafficking and the Boko Haram Conflict: The Not So Good, the Bad, and the Outright Ugly......Page 435

Introduction......Page 436

Boko Haram......Page 437

Boko Haram and Trafficking......Page 438

Chibok Girls´ Abductions......Page 441

Dapchi Girls´ Abduction......Page 442

The Stigma Associated with Trafficking......Page 443

Female Suicide Bombers......Page 444

Importance of the Women Peace and Security Agenda in the Prevention of Trafficking......Page 445

Role of the Media and Trafficking......Page 446

Role of Female Hunters......Page 447

National Response to Trafficking......Page 448

Recommendations......Page 449

References......Page 450

27 Family Violence and Exploitation: Examining the Contours of Violence and Exploitation......Page 453

Introduction......Page 454

The Australian Legal and Policy Background: Migration Law, Trafficking, and Slavery Offences......Page 455

Case Studies......Page 457

Rahmina......Page 458

Achol......Page 460

Chalai......Page 461

Implications......Page 462

Conclusion......Page 464

References......Page 465

28 Sex Trafficking as Structural Gender-Based Violence: Overview and Trauma Implications......Page 467

Underlying Factors: Sexism and Gender-Based Violence......Page 468

Defining Sex Trafficking in the Context of the Commercial Sex Industry......Page 470

Risk Factors for Sex Trafficking......Page 471

Methods of Recruitment......Page 473

Methods of Control......Page 476

Mental Health-Based Implications: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder......Page 477

Summary......Page 479

References......Page 480

29 From the Street Corner to the Digital World: How the Digital Age Impacts Sex Trafficking Detection and Data Collection......Page 482

Victims......Page 483

Traffickers......Page 485

Technology Used for Trafficking......Page 487

Technology Used Against Trafficking......Page 490

Conclusion......Page 493

References......Page 494

30 The Onset of Global Violent Extremism and Its Nexus with Human Trafficking......Page 496

Introduction......Page 497

Trafficking Tactics Used by Violent Extremists......Page 498

Tactics of Trafficking, Exploitation, and Violence Used by Boko Haram......Page 499

Tactics of Exploitation and Violence Used by ISIS......Page 501

References......Page 502

31 The Protocol on Trafficking in Persons and Transplant Tourism......Page 504

References......Page 515

32 Child/Forced/Servile Marriages Human Trafficking......Page 517

Introduction......Page 518

What Is Marriage?......Page 519

What Is Child/Early Marriage?......Page 520

What Is ``Forced Marriage´´?......Page 521

Circumstances Under Which Marriage Can Be Classified as Forced Marriage: Servitude, Slavery, and/or Trafficking......Page 522

Marriages Without Clear and Full Consent of One or Both Individuals Getting Married......Page 523

Economic Incentives......Page 524

Extent and Prevalence of Forced Marriages: How Many?......Page 525

Forced Marriage and Human Trafficking......Page 527

Family Honor and Pride......Page 528

High Premium on Virginity......Page 529

Forced Marriages in the Context of Human Rights Violation......Page 530

Conclusion......Page 531

References......Page 532

33 Gang Sex Trafficking in the United States......Page 534

Gang Sex Trafficking: Definition......Page 535

Method......Page 536

Gang Sex Trafficking Patterns in the United States......Page 538

Pimp Control......Page 540

Money Use and Management......Page 542

US Gang Trafficking Network Types......Page 543

Other Types of Sex Trafficking in the United States......Page 545

China and Asia......Page 546

Dutch/The Netherlands......Page 547

Islamic State (ISIS)......Page 548

Implications for Practice......Page 549

References......Page 550

34 The Human Trafficking of Men: The Forgotten Few......Page 554

Introduction......Page 555

Defining and Contextualizing Adult Male Trafficking......Page 556

Identifying the Specific Types of Adult Male Trafficking......Page 560

Recording Adult Male Trafficking Internationally......Page 561

Southeast Asia......Page 562

Responding to the Needs of Adult Male Trafficking Victims......Page 564

Cross-References......Page 566

References......Page 567

Part IV: Human Trafficking and Response Mechanisms......Page 569

35 The Swedish Approach to Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings Through a Gender Equality Lens......Page 570

Introduction......Page 571

Sites of Application......Page 572

Aiding and Abetting......Page 573

Penalties for the Purchase of a Sexual Service......Page 574

Gender Equality Is a Core Element in the Struggle to Eliminate Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings in Sweden......Page 576

Background......Page 577

Who Are the Men that Purchase Sexual Services?......Page 578

The Offence that Prohibits the Purchase of a Sexual Service as a Deterrent......Page 579

Survivors and Victims of Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings for Sexual Purposes......Page 580

Capacity Within the Justice System to Investigate and Prosecute Prostitution and Human Trafficking Offences......Page 581

The Purchase of Sexual Services in Another Country Is Still Not Prohibited......Page 582

National Debate......Page 584

International Debate......Page 585

The Engagement of a Committed Women´s Movement......Page 586

The Removal of Market Incentives......Page 588

Ongoing Independent Monitoring......Page 589

Cross-References......Page 590

References......Page 591

Judgments......Page 592

36 Creating Sanctuary: Trauma-Informed Change for Survivors of Sex Trafficking and Commercial Sexual Exploitation......Page 594

Introduction......Page 595

Trauma......Page 596

A Trauma-Informed Approach......Page 597

Trauma-Informed Care: Service Approaches for Sex Trafficking Survivors......Page 598

The Sanctuary Model......Page 599

S.E.L.F.......Page 600

Toolkit......Page 602

Recognizing Reenactment: Rescripting......Page 603

The Parallel Process......Page 605

Creating a Trauma-Responsive System of Care......Page 608

References......Page 609

37 Exploring Human Rights in the Context of Enforcement-Based Anti-trafficking in Persons Responses......Page 612

Introduction......Page 613

International Agreements and Ineffective Protections: Human Trafficking as a Transnational Crime......Page 614

Additional Human Rights Protections Outside of the Protocol......Page 618

Critical Analysis of Frameworks of Protection in an Enforcement-Based Context......Page 622

Summary......Page 627

References......Page 628

38 UN Palermo Trafficking Protocol Eighteen Years On: A Critique......Page 633

The Adoption of the UN Trafficking Protocol as an Instrument of Transnational Criminal Law......Page 634

The Definition of Trafficking in Persons......Page 636

The (Thin) Line Between Trafficking in Persons and the Smuggling of Migrants......Page 644

The (Scarce) Protection of Trafficking Victims......Page 645

Conclusion......Page 647

Cross-References......Page 648

References......Page 649

39 Criminal Justice System Responses to Human Trafficking......Page 651

Criminalization Frameworks and Legal Responses......Page 652

Challenges to Police Identification of Human Trafficking......Page 654

New Mandate for Local Law Enforcement......Page 655

Training Gaps......Page 656

Corruption and Complicity with Traffickers......Page 657

Lack of Resources and Need for Multiagency Coordination......Page 658

The Need for Specialized Investigators......Page 659

Victim-Centered/Trauma-Informed Approach......Page 660

Challenges to Prosecution......Page 661

Uncertainty About the Evidence Necessary to Prove a Case......Page 662

Institutional Infrastructure to Support Prosecution......Page 663

References......Page 664

40 Multisector Collaboration Against Human Trafficking......Page 668

Introduction......Page 669

Origins and Forms of Multisector Collaborations Against Human Trafficking......Page 670

US Government Efforts to Initiate and Sustain Domestic Multisector Collaboration Against Human Trafficking......Page 671

Challenges in Multisector Collaboration to Counter Human Trafficking......Page 673

Tensions Due to Differing Values, Beliefs, and Priorities......Page 674

Example: Conflicting Sector-Based Concepts of a Victim-Centered Approach to Human Trafficking......Page 675

Gender and Race......Page 676

Promising Practices......Page 678

Conclusion......Page 679

References......Page 680

41 Health and Social Service-Based Human Trafficking Response Models......Page 682

Introduction......Page 683

Coordinating Body......Page 686

Guiding Principles and Values......Page 687

Victim Identification Procedure......Page 690

Referral and Assistance Protocol......Page 693

Discussion......Page 697

Conclusion......Page 699

Appendix A. Examples of human trafficking identification tools......Page 700

References......Page 711

42 The Investigation and Prosecution of Traffickers: Challenges and Opportunities......Page 716

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Toolkit (2008) and United Nations´ Themes......Page 717

The EU......Page 720

Canada......Page 721

The United States......Page 724

Investigation and Prosecution Case Study of the United Kingdom: Challenges and Best Practice......Page 726

Conclusion......Page 729

References......Page 730

43 Combating Trafficking in Persons Through Public Awareness and Legal Education of Duty Bearers in India......Page 733

Introduction......Page 734

Trafficking in Persons in India......Page 735

International Standards and Guidelines with Reference to Awareness and Knowledge of Trafficking in Persons......Page 737

Public Awareness and Legal Education for Duty Bearers: Why and By Whom Required......Page 739

Reasons for the Gaps in Awareness and Legal Knowledge of Both the General Public and the Duty Bearers......Page 741

Current Government and Nongovernment Initiatives in India Towards Legal and Public Education on Human Trafficking......Page 744

Recommendations for Curtailing Human Trafficking Through Public Awareness and Legal Education of Duty Bearers......Page 748

References......Page 750

44 It´s Your Business: The Role of the Private Sector in Human Trafficking......Page 753

Introduction......Page 754

Evidence on Private-Sector Involvement......Page 755

Infiltrating Legitimate Businesses: An Organized Crime Frame......Page 758

Crime in the Workplace: A Corporate Crime Frame......Page 759

Crime in Legitimate Markets: A Network Frame......Page 761

The Limitations of the Criminal Justice System......Page 763

Private-Sector Responses......Page 764

Conclusions......Page 765

References......Page 766

45 A Complex Systems Stratagem to Combating Human Trafficking......Page 771

The Complexity of Human Trafficking......Page 772

Complex Systems Theory [and Thinking] as a Response to Reductionism......Page 774

Human Trafficking as a Complex System......Page 777

Combating Human Trafficking: Embracing the ``Whole´´......Page 783

Summary......Page 786

References......Page 787

46 The Failing International Legal Framework on Migrant Smuggling and Human Trafficking......Page 791

Introduction......Page 792

The Convoluted and Confusing International Legal Framework......Page 793

The Failure of a Legal Fiction......Page 795

The Impact of the Criminalization Approach......Page 797

Ineffective International Cooperation......Page 798

Implications for Law Enforcement......Page 799

No Measurable Results......Page 800

Criminalization of Immigration......Page 801

Increased Vulnerability of Migrants and Victims......Page 802

Academic Research......Page 803

Cross-References......Page 804

References......Page 805

47 Psychological Care and Support for the Survivors of Trafficking......Page 809

Establishment and Purpose of the IOM RC......Page 810

Characteristics of the Survivors......Page 811

Counsellor-Survivor Relationship......Page 813

Roles of a Counselling Psychologist......Page 814

Psychological Rehabilitation at IOM RC......Page 815

Special Challenges Experienced by Counselling Psychologists Working with Survivors......Page 816

Fitness for Providing Psychological Counselling and Preventing Burnout......Page 818

Cross-References......Page 820

References......Page 821

48 Human Trafficking in Supply Chains and the Way Forward......Page 823

Introduction......Page 824

Method of Research and Development of Observations......Page 825

Scale of the Problem......Page 826

The Evolution of the Ethical Audit......Page 828

Methods of Ethical Auditing and Their Weaknesses......Page 829

Opacity in Human Rights Responsibilities......Page 833

Foundational Problem 1: Poverty......Page 834

Foundational Problem 2: Urbanization......Page 835

Foundational Problem 3: Broken Labor Sourcing......Page 836

The Future of Ethical Supply Chain Efforts......Page 837

Bottom-Up Disruptive Technology: Strengths and Weaknesses in Emerging Interventions......Page 838

Worker Surveys......Page 839

Online Supplier Vetting Platforms......Page 840

Conclusion......Page 841

References......Page 844

49 Family-Based Non-state Torturers Who Traffic Their Daughters: Praxis Principles and Healing Epiphanies......Page 846

Introduction......Page 847

Responding to Stresses......Page 848

Victimization, Credibility, and Reliability......Page 849

A Specific Typology......Page 850

Non-State Torture Victimization-Traumatization Informed Care......Page 852

Principle 1: Societal Formation of Patriarchy and Misogyny Outlined in Fig. 3......Page 854

Principle 2: ``Culture´´ Shock and Vicarious Trauma......Page 855

Principle 3: Observations of Various Survival and Healing Responses......Page 857

Principle 1 - Epiphany 1: Patriarchal Societal Formation, Feminism, and Human Rights......Page 860

Principle 2 - Epiphany 2: ``Culture´´ Shock and Vicarious Trauma and Challenging Beliefs......Page 861

Principle 3 - Epiphany 3: Other Normal Responses of Escaping Black Boxes of Memories......Page 862

Conclusion: Best Practices......Page 865

References......Page 866

50 Mediated Representation of Human Trafficking: Issues, Context, and Consequence......Page 871

Introduction......Page 872

Main Issues in Media Representation of Human Trafficking......Page 873

Zooming in: The Three S´s of THB Reporting - Stereotyping, Simplification, and Sensationalism......Page 875

Zooming Out: Context and Consequence of THB Reporting......Page 879

Recommendations......Page 882

References......Page 884

51 Aesthetic Whistle-Blowers: The Importance and Limitations of Art and Media in Addressing Human Trafficking......Page 887

Literary Roots to the Original Abolition Movement......Page 888

Literature´s Ability to Influence Memory......Page 892

Aesthetic Whistle-Blowing: Solzhenitsyn......Page 893

Contemporary Refugee Literatures: Oral Storytelling......Page 895

Artists: Complicit Agents of Justice or Injustice......Page 897

Truth-Telling in Our Times......Page 898

Summary......Page 900

References......Page 901

Part V: Local/National/International Response Mechanisms......Page 904

52 Regional Responses to Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia and Australasia......Page 905

The Nature and Scope of Trafficking in the Region......Page 906

Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 908

Partnership......Page 910

Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 912

Partnership......Page 914

References......Page 916

53 An Examination of Counter Trafficking Responses in the Asian Region: Hong Kong and Singapore......Page 920

Introduction......Page 921

Human Trafficking in the Era of Modern Slavery: The Counter Trafficking Framework......Page 922

Singapore......Page 923

Response: Law......Page 924

Response: Victim Support......Page 926

Limitations......Page 927

Hong Kong......Page 929

Response: Law......Page 930

Response: Victim Support......Page 931

Implementation: Data and Issues......Page 932

Conclusion: Interrogating the Impact of ``Counter Trafficking´´ on Vulnerable Migrants......Page 933

References......Page 934

54 Breaking Bondages: Control Methods, ``Juju,´´ and Human Trafficking......Page 938

Introduction......Page 939

The Arsenal of Control Methods Used by Traffickers: An Overview......Page 940

Physical Coercive Control Methods......Page 941

Nonphysical Coercive Control Methods......Page 943

Juju and Human Trafficking......Page 947

Divination and the Spirit World......Page 948

Juju as Control Mechanism......Page 949

Suggested Response Mechanisms......Page 950

Cross-References......Page 952

References......Page 953

55 The Quest for Education as a Factor of Vulnerability to Child Trafficking: Reflections on ``Child Rescue´´ from the Perspec.........Page 955

The Challenge of Defining Child Trafficking......Page 957

The Context of Child Trafficking in Nigeria/West Africa......Page 958

Accommodating Children´s Agency and Resilience Within Child Trafficking Interventions......Page 959

Seeking Children´s Perspectives in Nigerian Trafficking Situations......Page 960

Child Agency in Seeking Educational Opportunities: The Limits of Addressing Children´s Needs After ``Rescue´´ from Trafficking......Page 961

Discussion: Protecting Child Trafficking Survivors by Integrating Education into ``Rescue´´ Efforts......Page 966

Summary......Page 967

References......Page 968

56 Deportation: Challenging the Caribbean´s Anti-trafficking Policy......Page 971

Introduction......Page 972

The Role of Postcolonialism Theory in Examining Human Trafficking......Page 973

Human Trafficking and Sex Trafficking in the Caribbean: An Overview......Page 974

Sex Trafficking in the Caribbean......Page 975

The Role of Ethnography in Human Trafficking......Page 977

The Silent Crime in the Caribbean......Page 978

Conclusion......Page 982

References......Page 983

57 The Role of the Border and Border Policies in Efforts to Combat Human Trafficking: A Case Study of the Cascadia Region of t.........Page 986

Policy Context......Page 987

British Columbia and Washington State......Page 989

Cross-Border Collaboration......Page 990

Challenges to Measuring Policy Efficacy......Page 993

Conclusion: The Path Forward......Page 996

References......Page 998

58 Human Trafficking in Southeastern Europe: Council of Europe Perspective......Page 1001

Introduction......Page 1002

Recent THB Trends in SEE Countries......Page 1003

Labor Exploitation......Page 1006

Child Trafficking......Page 1007

Identification of Victims......Page 1008

Compensation and Legal Redress......Page 1009

Other Issues......Page 1010

Conclusion......Page 1011

Cross-References......Page 1013

References......Page 1014

59 An Attempt to Control Human Trafficking from a Human Rights-Based Approach: The Case of Spain......Page 1015

Introduction......Page 1016

Historical Evolution of Human Trafficking in Spanish Criminal Law......Page 1017

The Concept of Human Trafficking in Spanish Criminal Law......Page 1018

Convictions for Human Trafficking in Spain......Page 1020

The Process of Identification......Page 1021

Data on the Identification of Trafficking Victims in Spain......Page 1022

Period of Recovery and Reflection......Page 1024

Residence and Work Permits......Page 1025

Protection and Assistance of Human Trafficking Victims in Spain......Page 1026

Summary: Critical Assessment and Proposals for Improvement......Page 1028

Cross-References......Page 1030

References......Page 1031

60 Response for Human Trafficking in Poland in a Nutshell......Page 1032

Introduction......Page 1033

Human Trafficking in Poland: Genesis and Specifics......Page 1034

Legal Regulations on Human Trafficking in Poland......Page 1039

A System of Eliminating Human Trafficking in Poland......Page 1042

Conclusion......Page 1045

Cross-References......Page 1046

References......Page 1047

61 Tackling Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking in Wales......Page 1049

A Brief Historical Overview of Action to Tackle Human Trafficking in Wales......Page 1050

The Wales-Specific Structure to Tackling Human Trafficking......Page 1051

Wales Anti-Slavery Coordinator......Page 1052

Wales Anti-Slavery Leadership Group......Page 1053

A Structured Response to Modern Slavery in Wales......Page 1055

Prosecutor Commitments......Page 1056

Police Response......Page 1057

Children Who May Be Trafficked......Page 1058

Gwent Missing Children´s Hub......Page 1059

Awareness......Page 1060

Strategic Objective 6: ``The Protection of Vulnerable People in the Homeless Sector in Wales´´......Page 1062

Strategic Objective 7: Continue to Develop and Deliver a Consistent Anti-slavery Training Program for Wales......Page 1063

Victim Response Pathway......Page 1064

Strategic Objective 9: Working with ``Source Countries´´......Page 1065

Wales Anti-slavery Logo: Tested Coordinated Action at a Glance......Page 1066

References......Page 1067

62 Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation: Scope of the Problem......Page 1069

Introduction......Page 1070

The Scope of Human Trafficking in Russia: Pre the ``Perestroika´´ to the Twenty-First Century......Page 1071

Available Statistics on Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation......Page 1075

Existing Types of Trafficking in Persons in the Russian Federation......Page 1076

Recruitment Methods and Mechanisms of Human Trafficking......Page 1077

Push and Pull Factors of Human Trafficking in Russia......Page 1078

Existing Labor Practices in National Construction Projects as Pre-conditions for Trafficking......Page 1079

Irregular Migration and Human Trafficking Codependence......Page 1080

The North Korean Labor Trafficking Case......Page 1081

Solutions and Challenges in Preventing and Combating Human Trafficking in RF......Page 1082

Cases of Successful Partnerships of NGOs and the State......Page 1083

Conclusion......Page 1086

References......Page 1087

63 Human Trafficking in Greece......Page 1091

Introduction......Page 1092

The Migration and Human Trafficking Nexus in Greece......Page 1093

Legislative Responses in a Changing Landscape......Page 1095

Trafficking in and Through Greece: What We Know......Page 1096

The Legislative Framework......Page 1101

Anti-trafficking in Practice......Page 1103

Conclusion......Page 1106

References......Page 1107

64 Legislation, Policies, and Practices Against Trafficking in Human Beings: The Case of Kosovo......Page 1111

Introduction......Page 1112

Legal and Institutional Framework......Page 1114

Framework in Theory and in Practice......Page 1117

Identification of Victims......Page 1119

Prevention and Protection of Victims......Page 1120

Investigation, Prosecution, and Sentencing......Page 1121

Victims as Witnesses......Page 1122

Recommendations and Future Directions......Page 1123

Conclusion......Page 1126

References......Page 1127

65 (Anti-)trafficking for Labor Exploitation in Romania: A Labor Perspective......Page 1131

Introduction......Page 1132

Legal Context of Trafficking in Romania......Page 1133

Anti-trafficking in Romania......Page 1135

Nature of Labor Exploitation in Romania......Page 1136

Poverty and Poor Working Conditions......Page 1138

Informal Economy......Page 1140

Romania as Emigration Country?......Page 1141

Conclusion......Page 1143

Cross-References......Page 1144

References......Page 1145

66 Human Trafficking Cases in Chile: Challenges for Reducing the ``Dark Figure´´......Page 1148

Introduction......Page 1149

Border Control Policy Impact on Human Trafficking: The Case of Tarapac......Page 1150

Criminal Justice System Limitations: Trafficking Definition and Identification......Page 1153

Limitations for Estimating the ``Dark Figure´´ on Human Trafficking in Chile......Page 1155

Conclusion: Challenges for the Identification of Victims and for Reducing the Dark Figure on Human Trafficking......Page 1157

References......Page 1159

67 The Application of the Non-punishment Principle to Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States......Page 1162

The Non-punishment Principle in International Law......Page 1163

Trafficking-Related Offenses......Page 1166

The Non-punishment Principle in US Law......Page 1167

Immunity and Diversion......Page 1169

Affirmative Defense......Page 1172

Vacating Criminal Convictions......Page 1173

Conclusion......Page 1175

Cross-References......Page 1176

References......Page 1177

68 Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings: A Step on the Road to Global Justice?......Page 1179

Introduction......Page 1180

The Legislation in Force......Page 1181

Statement of Purpose......Page 1182

Evaluation of Effects......Page 1184

Human Trafficking and Global Justice......Page 1191

Governing Through Crime......Page 1192

References......Page 1196

69 Combatting Human Trafficking in Lebanon: Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 1200

Overview of the Situation of Human Trafficking in Lebanon Before 2011......Page 1201

Current Lebanese Law on the Punishment for Human Trafficking......Page 1204

Prosecution and Investigations......Page 1205

Preventive Measures......Page 1208

Conclusion......Page 1209

Further Reading......Page 1211

Lebanese NGO´S Website......Page 1212

70 Strategies to Restore Justice for Sex Trafficked Native Women......Page 1213

Introduction......Page 1214

Colonial Era and American Revolution......Page 1215

``Gynemutilation´´......Page 1216

Ports and Waterways......Page 1217

Historical Evidence of Prostitution and Trafficking Around Duluth......Page 1218

Disparities in Native American Women´s Lives in US......Page 1219

Disparities in First Nation Women´s Lives in Canada......Page 1220

Prostituted and Trafficked First Nation Women in Canada......Page 1221

Contemporary Prostitution and Trafficking of Native Women in Duluth......Page 1222

Contemporary Prostitution and Trafficking of First Nation Women in Thunder Bay......Page 1223

Legal Strategies......Page 1224

Pursuing Civil Litigation......Page 1225

Support for Prostituted and Sex Trafficked Indigenous Women......Page 1227

Duluth as a Case Study......Page 1228

Conclusion......Page 1229

References......Page 1230

71 Human Trafficking in China......Page 1235

History......Page 1236

Scope of Human Trafficking......Page 1237

Forced Marriages......Page 1238

Forced Labor......Page 1239

Forced Sex Work......Page 1240

Human Smuggling......Page 1241

Response Mechanisms: Policies and Strategies......Page 1242

Policy Recommendations......Page 1244

References......Page 1245

Part VI: Organizational Profiles......Page 1248

72 Explaining Human Trafficking: Modern Day-Slavery......Page 1249

Causes and Contributing Factors of Human Trafficking......Page 1250

Push and Pull Factors......Page 1251

Capitalism Theory and Trafficking in Persons......Page 1252

Globalization......Page 1253

Demand and Supply Theory......Page 1254

Economics......Page 1255

Human Rights-Based Explanation......Page 1256

Victim-Oriented Framework and Theories......Page 1257

Conclusion......Page 1262

References......Page 1263

73 Human Trafficking: An International Response......Page 1267

General Human Rights Instruments......Page 1268

Specific Instruments......Page 1269

Affected Rights......Page 1274

The Right to Liberty and Security of the Person......Page 1275

The Right to Privacy......Page 1276

The Right Not to Be Subjected to Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or Torture......Page 1277

The Right to Equality......Page 1281

The Right to Work......Page 1282

Remedies......Page 1283

Enforcement Challenges and Possible Solutions......Page 1285

Conclusion......Page 1287

References......Page 1288

74 EU Anti-trafficking Coordinator: Trajectory of a Unique Mandate......Page 1291

Developing the EU Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice......Page 1292

The Policy Impetus......Page 1293

Stockholm Programme and the Post-Lisbon Reality......Page 1295

The Role of the European Parliament......Page 1299

Toward a Legislative Proposal......Page 1301

The Mandate in Function......Page 1305

References......Page 1309

75 National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual Violence Against Children, the Netherlands......Page 1311

Historical Development and Expansion of the Office of the National Rapporteur......Page 1312

Organization and Financing of the National Rapporteur......Page 1313

Reports of the National Rapporteur......Page 1315

Key Quantitative Figures......Page 1316

Collaborative Research in Estimating the Number of Victims in the Netherlands......Page 1317

Research Influencing Policy......Page 1318

Recommendations of the National Rapporteur......Page 1319

National Legislation......Page 1321

Regulatory Responses......Page 1323

Regulating the Prostitution Sector......Page 1324

Awareness Raising and Increased Protection for (Potential) Victims......Page 1325

Protection of Foreign Victims and Amendments to the B8 Regulation......Page 1326

Training, Awareness, and Identification......Page 1327

Prosecution and Trial......Page 1328

External Evaluation of the Work of the National Rapporteur......Page 1329

References......Page 1331

76 Sale of Children and Trafficking in Children as International Crimes......Page 1333

Introduction......Page 1334

Child Marriage and Sexual Abuse and Exploitation......Page 1337

Sale of Children on the Move......Page 1338

Sale of Children Facilitated by Information Technology......Page 1339

Sale of Children and Forced Labor......Page 1340

Sale of Children and Illegal Adoption......Page 1342

Sale of Children and Commercial Surrogacy......Page 1344

The Mandate of the United Nations Special Rapporteur as an Institutional Response......Page 1346

Concluding Remarks......Page 1349

References......Page 1350

77 Protection of Migrants Against Labor Exploitation in the Regulation of Migration in the EU......Page 1352

Introduction......Page 1353

Definitions......Page 1354

Intra-EU Labor Migration......Page 1355

Residence Right......Page 1356

Equal Treatment......Page 1357

Access to Social Security......Page 1358

Admission to the EU Territory......Page 1359

Residence Right......Page 1360

Access to Work......Page 1361

Equal Treatment......Page 1362

Undocumented Migrants: The Employers´ Sanctions Directive......Page 1363

Conclusion......Page 1364

References......Page 1366

78 Return on Investment: Spending on Combatting Human Trafficking......Page 1367

Introduction......Page 1368

Research Limitations......Page 1370

Historical Underpinnings in Defining Human Trafficking......Page 1372

Spending in an Illegal Market......Page 1373

Conclusions......Page 1375

References......Page 1377

79 European Court of Human Rights and the Right Not to Be Subjected to Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking......Page 1382

Introduction......Page 1383

Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia: The Addition of Human Trafficking and the Expansion of States´ Positive Obligations......Page 1384

C.N. and V. v. France: Clarification as to the Distinction Between Forced Labor and Servitude......Page 1386

M. and Others v. Italy and Bulgaria: Reaffirmation of Human Trafficking......Page 1388

L.E. v. Greece: A Slight Retreat......Page 1389

J. and Others v. Austria: Continuation of the Uncertainty Introduced with the Addition of Human Trafficking......Page 1391

Chowdury and Others v. Greece: The Vulnerability of Migrant Workers......Page 1393

Conclusion......Page 1395

References......Page 1396

Introduction......Page 1397

Mandate and Duties of the Ombudsman as the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1399

Work of the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings in Practice......Page 1401

Foreword......Page 1406

Provisions on Assisting Victims of Human Trafficking in International and EU Law......Page 1407

Report on the Effectiveness of the Legislation Applying to Assistance for Victims of Human Trafficking......Page 1408

Discussion and Analysis......Page 1411

Conclusion......Page 1412

References......Page 1413

Part VII: The Work of Nongovernmental Organizations......Page 1415

81 Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human Trafficking from Multiple Directions......Page 1416

Introduction......Page 1417

United Nations and Intergovernmental Organization Initiatives......Page 1419

Policy and Advocacy Efforts by Nongovernment Organizations......Page 1421

Public-Private Initiatives......Page 1423

Networks and Coalitions......Page 1424

Victim Services......Page 1426

Awareness and Movement-Building Organizations......Page 1427

Summary......Page 1428

References......Page 1429

Organizations and Resources......Page 1430

82 Soroptimist International´s Work in the Prevention of Modern-Day Slavery: Wales as a Good Practice Example of Partnership W.........Page 1432

Background......Page 1433

The Work of the Four Soroptimist International Federations on Modern Slavery/Human Trafficking......Page 1434

Soroptimist International of the Americas......Page 1435

Soroptimist International Europe......Page 1436

Soroptimist International South West Pacific......Page 1437

Soroptimist International Great Britain and Ireland......Page 1438

UK Programme Action Committee (UKPAC)......Page 1439

Wales as a Good Practice Example for Successful Partnership in the Fight to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1440

Conclusion......Page 1446

References......Page 1447

Legislation......Page 1448

83 NGOs Combating the Problem of Human Trafficking in South Asian Countries: A Review of Legal and Administrative Measures wit.........Page 1449

Community-Based Prevention......Page 1451

Economic Rehabilitation......Page 1452

Bhabna Association for People´s Upliftment......Page 1453

Anti-trafficking Centers......Page 1454

Group Homes......Page 1455

Apne Aap Women Worldwide (AAWW)......Page 1456

Right to Legal Protection......Page 1457

Formal Education......Page 1458

Rescue......Page 1459

Psychosocial Counseling......Page 1460

Rescue Operations Through Community Vigilant Group......Page 1461

WISH: Women Initiatives Toward Self-Help......Page 1462

Maiti Nepal......Page 1463

Raksha Nepal......Page 1464

Society for Human Rights and Prisoners´ Aid (SHARP)......Page 1465

The Ansar Burney Trust......Page 1466

ANTAR......Page 1467

ATSEC Action Against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children, Bangladesh Chapter (ATSEC)......Page 1468

Center for Women and Children Studies (CWCS)......Page 1469

The Human Rights Commission of the Maldives......Page 1470

Conclusion......Page 1471

Websites......Page 1473

84 The NGO Response to Human Trafficking: Challenges, Opportunities, and Constraints......Page 1475

Methodology......Page 1476

Trafficking and the Support Sector: Contracted Provision of Support......Page 1478

Challenges to the Provision of Support Services......Page 1479

The Development of the Trafficking Support Sector over Time......Page 1480

Faith and Support Services for Human Trafficking Victims......Page 1481

Relationship Between Contractual Culture, Government Discourse, Work with Trafficking Victims, and Faith......Page 1484

Conclusion......Page 1486

References......Page 1487

85 The Role of Women´s Nongovernmental Organizations in Bulgaria for More Effective Protection and Assistance to Victims of Hu.........Page 1488

Ensuring the Basis for Services to Victims......Page 1489

Ensuring Coordination, Counseling for Victims Including Legal Counseling Without Delay......Page 1491

Long-Term Psychological and Social Support......Page 1493

Legal Standards and Measures for the Protection of Victims of Trafficking and Realizing Responsibility of Offenders. The Role .........Page 1494

Strasbourg: Complaints......Page 1496

The Judgment......Page 1497

Challenges of Implementation of the Judgment: The Issue of Compensation......Page 1498

Conclusion......Page 1499

86 Working with Parliamentarians, Statutory Authorities, and the NGO Sector: The Role of the Human Trafficking Foundation in I.........Page 1500

The Human Trafficking Foundation: Partnerships and Parliamentarians......Page 1501

The Modern Slavery Act: The End of the Journey?......Page 1502

Section 52: A Duty to Notify......Page 1504

Identification in Local Authorities......Page 1505

Preventative Work and Identification by Police......Page 1506

The HTF´s Work with Local Authorities......Page 1507

SPOC Network......Page 1508

Pan-London Working......Page 1509

Inadequate Support: Day 1 and Day 46......Page 1510

The Trafficking and Survivor Care Standards......Page 1511

Long-Term Support......Page 1512

References......Page 1516

Further Readings......Page 1517

87 How Lifelong Discrimination and Legal Inequality Facilitate Sex Trafficking in Women and Girls......Page 1519

Introduction......Page 1520

How Gender Discrimination in Law and Practice Sets Women and Girls up for Sexual Exploitation......Page 1521

Human Rights and Protection Under the Law......Page 1523

Distinguishing Trafficking, Sexual Exploitation, and Prostitution: The Exploitation Continuum......Page 1528

Abuse of Power......Page 1530

Government Responses to Managing the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others......Page 1531

Conclusion......Page 1533

References......Page 1534

88 ACT Alberta: A Canadian Case Study of a Collaborative and Evidence-Based Approach to Address Human Trafficking......Page 1537

History of ACT Alberta......Page 1538

Strategy I: Cross-Sectoral Collaboration......Page 1540

Challenges to Stakeholder Collaboration......Page 1542

Strategy II: Evidence-Informed Practice......Page 1544

Program Areas: Training and Awareness Raising on Human Trafficking......Page 1546

Coordinating Services for Victims of Human Trafficking......Page 1547

Conclusion......Page 1549

References......Page 1550

89 State-Level Interventions for Human Trafficking: The Advocates for Human Rights......Page 1552

About The Advocates for Human Rights......Page 1553

Human Trafficking in Minnesota......Page 1554

2008 Sex Trafficking Needs Assessment Report......Page 1555

Safe Harbor for Youth......Page 1556

Strategic Plan for Adult Trafficking Victims......Page 1559

Labor Trafficking......Page 1560

Asking the Right Questions......Page 1561

Statewide Labor Trafficking Protocol......Page 1562

Lessons Learned and Next Steps......Page 1564

Federal Statutes......Page 1565

References......Page 1566

Part VIII: Future Issues and Directions in Controlling Human Trafficking......Page 1568

90 The Praxis of Protection: Working with - and Against - Human Trafficking Discourse......Page 1569

A Vantage Point on Human Trafficking and Protection......Page 1570

The Making of a Global Social Problem......Page 1572

Local Perspectives on Social Phenomena Constructed as Human Trafficking......Page 1574

Constructing Victims of Trafficking at Large......Page 1577

Constructing Individual Victims of Trafficking......Page 1579

References......Page 1582

91 Self-Identification of Victimization of Labor Trafficking......Page 1586

Introduction......Page 1587

Explaining Low Self-Identification of Victimization of Labor Exploitation......Page 1589

Two Trajectories to Self-Identification in the Netherlands......Page 1592

Discussion......Page 1594

Cross-References......Page 1597

References......Page 1598

92 How to Effectively Approach and Calculate Restitution for a Victim of Human Trafficking......Page 1600

Growing Focus of Human Trafficking for Forced Labor......Page 1601

Need for a Nuanced Criminal Restitution Calculation Forced Labor......Page 1603

Recovery for Forced Labor Varies Based on Causes of Action Asserted......Page 1605

Restitution Remains the Best Opportunity to Calculate the Value of Forced Labor......Page 1606

Fair Market Value Evaluation Is Not the Best Method of Calculating Restitution......Page 1607

Fair Market Value Computation Allows Trafficker to Benefit from Their Crime......Page 1608

California Penal Code Section 1202.4(q) Provides Equitable Calculations......Page 1609

Cross-References......Page 1610

References......Page 1611

Statutes......Page 1612

Cases......Page 1613

93 The Advent of a Legislation Proscribing Trafficking in India: A Prescriptive Package for Victims of Trafficking or a Mere R.........Page 1614

Introduction......Page 1615

Human Trafficking in South Asia......Page 1616

Toward a Comprehensive Law on Anti-trafficking in India......Page 1619

The Carceral Nature of the Trafficking in Persons Bill......Page 1621

Ambiguity in the Bill´s Language......Page 1623

Failure to Consolidate Existing Laws......Page 1624

Failure to Address Root Causes and the Realities of Migration and Bonded Labor......Page 1625

Toward a Prescriptive Package for Victims of Trafficking......Page 1626

Conclusion......Page 1627

Cross-References......Page 1628

References......Page 1629

94 Corporate Criminal Liability on Human Trafficking......Page 1632

Corporations´ Involvement from Service Providers to Beneficiaries......Page 1633

Human Trafficking, Forced Labor, and Slavery: Conceptual Observations......Page 1634

Different Approaches to Corporate Criminal Liability......Page 1635

Trafficking in Human Beings Both as a Transnational and a Domestic Phenomenon......Page 1636

Trafficking and Exploitation: Criminalization of Use of Services of Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1637

Overlapping Elements of Human Trafficking and Exploitation by Forced Labor......Page 1638

Corporate Criminal Liability for Forced Labor and Practices Similar to Slavery: Legal Challenges and Unsolved Questions......Page 1639

Obligations to Establish Corporate Liability, Might It be of Criminal, Civil, or Administrative Nature......Page 1640

Sanctions, Confiscation......Page 1642

Forced Labor or Practices Similar to Slavery: Which Standard Shall Be Applied?......Page 1643

Territorial and/or Extraterritorial Jurisdiction......Page 1645

Preliminary Conclusions......Page 1646

Corporate Criminal and Civil Liability......Page 1647

Cross-References......Page 1648

References......Page 1649

95 Measuring Trafficking in Persons Better: Problems and Prospects......Page 1651

Why Collecting Statistics on Human Trafficking?......Page 1652

The Problems with Official Statistics on Victims of Trafficking......Page 1653

European Victim Statistics Revisited......Page 1655

Global Statistics......Page 1656

Regional Numbers at the Global Level......Page 1657

National Numbers......Page 1658

European Numbers in Focus......Page 1659

Evaluation......Page 1661

Estimating the True Numbers......Page 1662

Evaluation......Page 1663

The Way Ahead: Bespoke Surveys and Multiple Systems Estimation......Page 1665

Discussion......Page 1666

References......Page 1667

96 Using Criminal Routines and Techniques to Predict and Prevent the Sexual Exploitation of Eastern-European Women in Western .........Page 1669

Introduction......Page 1670

Trafficking Routes and Statistics......Page 1671

Organized Criminal Gangs, Digital Technology, and the Trafficking Process......Page 1673

Law Enforcement Agencies´ Responses......Page 1675

Trafficking and Organized Crime Groups......Page 1678

Organized Crime Groups and Organized Crime Networks Modus Operandi......Page 1680

From Theory to Practice......Page 1682

Conclusion......Page 1684

Summary......Page 1685

References......Page 1686

97 Using Law Enforcement Data in Trafficking Research......Page 1689

The Trafficking Evidence Base: Weak Designs, Hard-to-Access Data, and Skews in Focus......Page 1690

Limitations of Law Enforcement Data......Page 1692

Law Enforcement Data: A Goldmine for Trafficking Research......Page 1693

Initial Design and Contact......Page 1695

Understanding Resourcing......Page 1704

Securing Organizational Support......Page 1705

Dealing with Sensitive and Restricted Data......Page 1706

Conclusion......Page 1708

References......Page 1709

98 Combating Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal: Lessons Learned from Prosecuting Criminal Cases......Page 1713

Introduction......Page 1714

Case Description......Page 1716

Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 1717

Challenges to the Investigation and Prosecution......Page 1718

Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 1720

Legal Framework and Law Enforcement Response......Page 1721

Challenges to Investigation and Prosecution......Page 1722

Discussion: Issues and Directions in Controlling THBOR......Page 1723

References......Page 1726

99 A Transnational Field Approach to the Study of Labor Trafficking......Page 1730

Introduction......Page 1731

Transnational Space......Page 1732

Transnational Organized Crime Networks......Page 1734

Vulnerability Inherent in Migration......Page 1736

Transnational Networks......Page 1737

Conclusion......Page 1739

References......Page 1741

100 Individual Criminal Responsibility Beyond the State: Human Trafficking as Both a Transnational and an International Crime......Page 1743

The Crime of Human Trafficking......Page 1744

National Dimension and Criminality......Page 1745

Cooperation Regimes......Page 1746

International Regimes......Page 1747

The Rome Statute......Page 1748

General Requirements for ICC Jurisdiction......Page 1749

Enslavement......Page 1750

The Kunarac Case......Page 1751

Other Provisions in Article 7 of the Rome Statute......Page 1752

The ``Regionalization´´ of (International) Criminal Justice and the Inclusion of Human Trafficking Within the American, Africa.........Page 1753

The United Nations Security Council and the Crime of Human Trafficking......Page 1757

References......Page 1760

101 Labor Trafficking of Men in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Camps of Madre de Dios: A Reflection from the ``Dias.........Page 1763

Introduction......Page 1764

The Dynamics of the Irregular Gold Economy and Labor Trafficking in the MDD Gold Mining Camps: An Overview......Page 1767

Scoping Labor Trafficking......Page 1768

Some Indicators......Page 1769

What Is the Peruvian Government Doing to Fight Human Trafficking?......Page 1771

The Need for New Approaches to Counteract Labor Trafficking: The Theoretical Debate......Page 1772

From the Security Approach to the ``Diaspora Networks Approach´´......Page 1773

References......Page 1777

102 Is It Time to Open a Conversation About a New United Nations Treaty to Fight Human Trafficking That Focuses on Victim Prot.........Page 1781

Introduction......Page 1782

Part 1: The Palermo Protocol......Page 1783

Critique of Aspects of the Transnational Criminal Justice, Crime Control as Deterrent, and Immigration-Led Approaches of the P.........Page 1785

Critique of Limited Victim Protection and Prevention Measures in the Palermo Protocol......Page 1789

Progressing the Human Rights Agenda: Palermo and Beyond......Page 1790

Human Dignity as the Foundation of Any New Treaty......Page 1791

Prevention and Assistance......Page 1793

Conclusion......Page 1794

References......Page 1795

103 Human Trafficking and Migration: Examining the Issues from Gender and Policy Perspectives......Page 1797

Differentiating Human Trafficking and Smuggling of Migrants......Page 1798

Human Trafficking and Migration: The Linkages and Policy Issues......Page 1801

Human Trafficking-Migration Nexus: Gender Issues......Page 1804

Conclusion and Recommendations......Page 1808

References......Page 1809

Index......Page 1812

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