Boer War Museum: An agency of the Department of Sports, Arts and Culture
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Jacobus Hercules de la Rey was born on 22 October 1847 in the district of Winburg and died at Langlaagte on 15 September 1914
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Anglo-Boer War Museum: An agency of the Department of Sports, Arts and Culture
Jacobus Hercules de la Rey was born on 22 October 1847 in the district of Winburg and died at Langlaagte on 15 September 1914

He was the son of Adrianus de la Rey en his wife Adriana Wilhelmina, born Van Rooyen. In 1848 they moved to the farm Welverdiend in the present district of Wolmaransstad. As a child De la Rey received very little formal education but he never saw this as a hindrance as his parents’ teachings and his natural intelligence gave him a sound foundation. Soon after the discovery of diamonds the family moved to Kimberley where de la Rey became a successful transport-rider before settling on a farm in the district of Lichtenburg. In 1876 he married Jacoba Elizabeth Greeff. Ten children were born from this marriage. The newly-weds moved to the farm Manana where De la Rey became so successful that he was able to buy the farm Elandsfontein near Lichtenburg were he lived to his death.

He soon showed signs of military leadership. As a nineteen-year old he took part in the Basuto War of 1865 and also as a field-cornet in the Sekhukune War of 1876. He was used by the government as a surveyor of farms and as the Native Commissioner in the Western Transvaal. As transport rider, surveyor and Native Commissioner he got to know the Western Transvaal intimately which would greatly contribute to his military leadership during the Anglo-Boer war. From 1893 he was a member of the Volksraad were his calmness and sense of fairness had a great influence on his fellow members.

During the First War of Independence (1880-1881) De la Rey took part in the siege of the British Fort in Potchefstroom. In 1885 he was elected as Lichtenburg’s commandant.

On the eve of the Anglo-Boer War Cmdt.-Gen. Piet Joubert appointed De la Rey as Gen. P.A. Cronje’s advisor on the Western Front. It was extremely difficult for De la Rey who was against the war in the first place to be responsible for the first skirmish of the war at Kraaipan where he had to derail an armoured train. On 12 October 1899 he captured twenty six British soldiers as well as three guns, a number of rifles and ammunition.

Cronje and De la Rey then had a difference of opinion regarding the siege of Mafeking as De la Rey did not agree with the idea of besieging Mafeking. On 19 October 1899 De la Rey was appointed as general with the order to besiege Kimberley. De la Rey first clashed with Lord Methuen at the battle of Graspan (Rooilaagte) op 25 November l899. During the battle of Modder River, that took place three days later, De la Rey was wounded in his shoulder while his eldest son Adriaan was killed in action.

To change Cronje’s mind regarding the tactics to be followed at Magersfontein, De la Rey invited President M.T. Steyn to visit the western front. The result was that Cronje approved the plan. The burghers were entrenched between 150 and 300 metres before the Magersfontein hills. De la Rey however was not present at the battle of Magersfontein (10 – 11 December 1899) as he had left a few days before the battle for Riverton north of Kimberley, to recover form his shoulder wound.

After the surrender of Cronje at Paardeberg on 27 February 1900, De la Rey desperately tried to stem the British tide at on 10 March 1900 at by Abrahamskraal (Driefontein) but without any success. From 28 May 1900 until 29 May 1900 De la Rey and Roberts once more clashed at the battle of Doornkop, near Johannesburg.

During a council of war at Balmoral during June 1900, De la Rey was instructed to reclaim Western Transvaal from the British. On 11 July 1900, he defeated Col. H. Roberts at Silkaatsnek. A number of burghers who had already laid down their weapons joined De la Rey’s forces again. De la Rey now concentrated on isolated British units. It was important to de la Rey to once more establish the Boers’ authority in the area and he therefore launched an efficient military re-organization of the area.

On 3 December 1900 he captured 126 wagons loaded with clothing, boots and Christmas delicacies from the British at Buffelspoort. He and Gen Beyers followed-up this success with a victory over the British forces under Gen Clements ten days later at Nooitgedacht. The official British losses were 638 while seventeen burghers were killed and sixty one were wounded.

De la Rey divided the commandos on the western front in smaller units and placed the Rustenburg and Krugersdorp commando’s under his personal control. In 1901 several British commanders i.e. Methuen, Dixon, Cunningham and Kekewich were sent to capture de la Rey, however without any success. It was during this period that De la Rey developed his famous charging tactic which resulted in many losses on British side. In stead of dismounting the burghers developed shooting from the saddle during a charge into a fine art. The victory at Ysterspruit (25 February 1902) is proof of the success of this tactic. This resulted in his nickname the ‘Lion of Western Transvaal’. Lord Methuen was wounded and captured during the battle of Tweebosch on 7 March 1902. De la Rey released Methuen so that he could receive medical attention.

De la Rey found the initial peace conditions unacceptable. On 29 May 1902, however he, with a short speech managed to persuade the burghers and General C R de Wet to lay down their arms. His reasoned that his commando’s could carry on with the war but that the conditions in the rest of the country were rather bad. He was one of the co-signatories of the peace agreement on 31 May 1902

During the war De la Rey’s wife assisted him in a very special way. During the first phase of the war she regularly visited him on the front and from 1 December 1900 she kept in close contact with him when she and the children wandered about in the veldt for nineteen months.

After the war he accompanied Generals Botha and De wet to Europe where they collected funds for the reconstruction of the country. He also travelled to India to persuade the diehards amongst the prisoners-of-war to sign the oath of allegiance. He became more and more involved in politics. He became a member of the Transvaal Parliament, a delegate at the National Convention, a member of the Senate of the Union etc. In 1914 De la Rey was in charge of the Government forces during the strike in Johannesburg. When the First World War broke out during the same year he did not agree with Gen. Botha’s idea of attacking German South West Africa on behalf of Britain. He decided to attend a meeting of rebels in Potchefstroom. On the same day that Beyers resigned as Commandant-General of the Active Citizen Force he and De la Rey traveled by car form Pretoria to Potchefstroom. The driver did not stop at a roadblock set up for the Foster gang and he was killed by a ricochet on 15 September 1914.

Sir Redvers Buller’s main objective was the relief Ladysmith. By mid-December he had amassed more than 21 000 troops equipped with forty-six guns south of the Thukela. In the hills along the northern bank Botha and his 4 500 men armed with five guns dug themselves in an excellent position because of the vantage point it offered. From 13 to 14 December Buller directed a heavy bombardment at the hills north of Colenso. Inadequate reconnaissance however, on the British side had failed to detect the positions of the Boer entrenchments. On the morning of the 15th the Boers unleashed a hail of rifle and gun fire from their concealed positions on the advancing enemy across the Thukela which ended in a general British retreat.

In January 1900 Botha deployed his men in a line, 24 km long, opposite three fords on the Upper Thukela. After British troops under Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Warren crossed the Thukela at Trichardtsdrift on 16 January, Botha set up positions on the crest of Tabanyama that were invisible to the enemy. The British attacked on 20 January and for two days mercilessly bombarded Tabanyama. On 22 January they decided to take Spioenkop. Here the column of 2000 men under Major-General E.R.P. Woodgate was pinned down by the Boers on the morning of 24 January. The Boers stormed up Spioenkop and opened fire on the British with deadly accuracy. They were also supported from the surrounding hills. Losses on both sides were severe and by nightfall the British had to evacuate.

On 6 February, Botha resumed command on the upper Thukela. Through careful planning and tactical skill, Botha, who only had 3 510 men and eight guns at his disposal, managed to outwit the British and to keep them guessing as to the true strength of his army. Buller’s final assault on the Boer positions at the Thukela however proved too strong. After the conquest of Cingolo (17 February) and Monte Cristo (18 February) the Boer’s resistance crumbled. Botha nevertheless offered stubborn resistance at Wynne’s Hill, Pietershoogte and Railway Hill (27 February). The British were victorious and the Boers had to retreat, leaving the road to Ladysmith open. A day later the demoralized Boers were on their way to the Biggarsberg and Van Reenen.

By the end of the month was appointed Commandant-General after the death of Joubert. Botha was then placed in charge of the Boer forces in the Free State who were to check Roberts’ advance on Pretoria. He arrived at the Sand River with 3 000 men on 7 May 1900 and deployed his men. The numerical superiority of the British proved too great and after French had pushed past Botha’s right flank, Roberts’ main force was able to break through with ease and to occupy Kroonstad on 12 May.

On 22 May Botha crossed the Vaal River and decided to defend Johannesburg at Kliprivierberg and Doornkop but the British broke through the Boer lines on 29 May and two days later Johannesburg and the mines of the Witwatersrand were in Roberts’ hands. Roberts marched into Pretoria shortly afterwards. Botha now took up position at Donkerhoek, east of Pretoria. He made certain that his flanks were strongly manned despite the 48-km line he had to defend. The battle raged for two days (from 11 June to 12 June 1900). After Ian Hamilton broke through the Boer lines the Boers retreated in an easterly direction along the railway line.

In July and August 1900 he was involved in a series of skirmishes with British divisions in the South-Eastern Transvaal always with the protection of the strategically important Delagoa Bay railway line in mind. When the British occupied Middelburg on 27 July 1900 Botha set up his headquarters close to Belfast where he was involved the battle at Bergendal (Dalmanutha) on 27/08/1900. Roberts’s superiority in artillery was decisive and the Transvalers were forced to retreat further to the east. Firmly convinced that he had dealt the Boers a mortal blow, Roberts formally annexed Transvaal on 1 September 1900. Although many of Botha’s officers were considering surrender at this time, both Presidents Steyn and Kruger bolstered Botha’s courage. After Bergendal he abandoned conventional deployment methods. With renewed zeal he moved to Lydenburg where he took up position. Buller routed him from there on 8 September but not before his guns and supplies had been sent away. He now retreated to the Nelspruit railway line. The Boers’ prospects looked grim: they were cut off from their supply base and from communication with the outside world. President Kruger had left for Europe and many Boers had fled across the border to Mozambique. Botha nevertheless still had the hard core of his men at his disposal and he was determined to carry on fighting.

In November 1900 Botha reorganized his commandos again; announcing punitive measure for Boers evading commando service and from 2-12 December personally took part in attacks on Utrecht, Wakkerstroom and Vryheid, and Nooitgedacht (12-13 December). After the successful raid on Helvetia (28/29 December) Botha planned a large-scale attack on the various stations on the Delagoa Bay railway line for January 1900 but his forces were too spread out to inflict much damage.

After a meeting with Lord Kitchener at Middelburg in February 1901 he rejected the British peace proposals and continued with the war. He undertook a daring but unsuccessful raid into Natal in September 1901. On 30 October 1901 Botha defeated Lieutenant-Colonel GE Benson at Bakenlaagte. Though there where several skirmishes in Eastern Transvaal during the latter part of 1901 they had little effect on the outcome of the war.

At the Klerksdorp peace discussions and at the negotiations at Vereeniging (15 May -31 May 1902) he agreed with the decision that peace should be declared. During the negotiations with Kitchener and Milner he insisted on an honourable peace for all parties. Two months later he accompanied Generals CR de Wet and J.H. de la Rey to Europe to collect money for the economic recovery of those Afrikaners whom the war had impoverished.

In May 1904 Botha was a founder member of the political party, Het Volk. When self-government was finally granted, Botha became Prime Minister of the Transvaal and with the establishment of the Union of South Africa (1910) he was appointed Prime Minister of the Union. Botha commanded the Union troops during the rebellion of 1914 and the South West African campaign during the First World War. He and General Smuts attended the peace conference in Europe in December 1918 as members of the British delegation, but took their seats as full-fledged delegates in their own right. On 27 August 1919 he died unexpectedly of a heart attack in Pretoria.

De Wet now disbanded the commandos, with orders to reassemble at the Sand River on 25 March. A new spirit prevailed among the burghers when they reassembled. They were also informed that cowards and deserters would be strictly disciplined. In accordance with the resolution passed at the council of war at Kroonstad (17/03/1900) De Wet urged the burghers to get rid of their wagons as this seriously impeded their progress. From now on he planned and carried out his operations with complete secrecy. Treachery and lack of discipline were greater obstacles to him than the enemy’s superior force. He was a strict taskmaster, demanding total dedication from his burghers. Although he was not always too popular, his unerring certainty when summing up a situation and issuing commands and his uncanny sense of timing and direction, combined with his many successes ensured his men’s complete confidence and support.

On 31 March 1900 De Wet dealt the British a severe blow when he defeated Brigadier-General R.G. Broadwood’s forces at Sannaspos near Bloemfontein. After the railway bridge across the Vaal River had been damaged, huge stores of provisions, destined for the British army, accumulated at Roodewal station. De Wet launched a direct attack on the station on 7 June 1900 where he managed to capture supplies worth – 500 000.

To counter De Wet’s operations the British army assembled more than 15 000 men and marched on Bethlehem where De Wet put up a gallant defence. He had to retreat to the Brandwater Basin as the odds were too great. On 15 July De Wet, Steyn and the government managed to escape unscathed from the trap set by the British generals in the Brandswater Basin. General Michael Prinsloo was not as fortunate and had to surrender with 3500 burghers on 30 July 1900

Roberts concluded that he can probably end the war if he succeeded in capturing De Wet. He now initiated a large scale operation known as the ‘First De Wet Hunt.’ About 50 000 men were soon on the trail of the ever elusive Boer general who crossed into Transvaal, and succeeded in shaking of his pursuers by crossing the Magaliesberg at Olifantsnek on 14 August 1900.

After a thorough reorganisation of the Boer forces burghers who had taken the oath of neutrality were called up again. De Wet headed the drive in the Free State and through his efforts and encouragement many a Freestater rejoined the commandos. For De Wet the adoption of guerrilla tactics heralded a period of reverses e. g at Frederickstad (20-25 October 1900) and Doornkraal (6 /11/1900) near Bothaville.

To relieve the pressure on the Eastern Free State De Wet invaded the Cape Colony. Three columns under General CE Knox took part in the second De Wet hunt. Heavy rains and a flooded Orange River thwarted Wet’s plans. He managed to evade capture and on 14 December he broke through the British lines near Thaba Nchu. At the end of January 1901 he again attempted to invade the Cape Colony. Seventeen flying columns (14 000 troops) now took part in the third De Wet hunt. De Wet finally crossed the Orange on 10 February 1901 but the lack of horses and torrential rain frustrated his plans. On 28 February he returned to the Free State. This second invasion was a dismal failure as he lost the strategic initiative and from then on he would be largely committed to defensive warfare.

To bring the war to an end Kitchener had a formidable line of blockhouses built and he started flushing out the Boers in a series of systematic drives. Even these measures proved ineffective against De Wet as he broke through the lines at will. Shortly after inflicting heavy losses on the British forces at Groenkop (25/12/1901) he managed to evade one extensive drive only to be caught up in another. Again he managed to escape.

During March 1902 he operated in the western Free State, but the end was in sight. The scorched earth policy and the plight of the women and children in the concentration camps brought the Boers to the negotiation table. Although De Wet was still prepared to carry on with the relentless struggle it was clear that most of the delegates at Vereeniging were opposed to prolonging the war. De Wet signed the peace treaty in his capacity as acting president of the Free State (29-31 May 1902) as Steyn was by then too ill. He then visited the commandos to persuade them to lay down their arms. In July 1902 De Wet, J.H. de la Rey and Louis Botha left for Europe where they raised funds for the reconstruction of the country. While on board the Saxon he wrote his wartime reminiscences ‘De Strijd tusschen Boer en Brit’ (1902), aided by Rev JD Kestell.

Back in South Africa De Wet was a founder member of the Orangia Unie. He was Minister of Agriculture after the Orange River Colony was granted self-government. In 1910 De Wet retired from politics and settled on his farm, Allanvale, near Memel.

When the First World War started in 1914 De Wet was against Botha’s attack of German South West Africa. The situation was aggravated when Martial Law was declared and men were called up from all over the country. This created the impression that the Government had departed from its undertaking to use only volunteers. De Wet now favoured a form of armed protest which became a reality when the government started with the commandeering of burghers. During a skirmish at Doornberg (8/11/1914 his son Danie and several other rebels were killed. De Wet evaded his pursuers and was finally captured at Waterbury near Vryburg on 30 November 1914. He was held in the Johannesburg Fort. Six months later he was found guilty on a charge of high treason and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment and a fine of ‘2000 which was soon paid from voluntary contributions. In response to representations made by several influential people the Government granted him a reprieve and he returned to Allanvale on parole.

He sold Allanvale and after settling for a few years near Edenburg, he returned to the Dewetsdorp district where he settled on Klipfontein. He died on 23 February 1922 and was laid to rest at the foot of the Women’s Memorial.

Emily Hobhouse was born on 9 April, 1860. She was raised in the tiny village of St. Ive near Liskeard in East Cornwall.

Her father was rector of the Anglican Church while her mother was the daughter of Sir William Trelawney who represented East Cornwall in parliament. After her mother’s death Emily took care of her father who was often unwell. After his death in January 1895 she left for the United States where she did welfare work among the many Cornish emigrants working in the mines in Minnesota. She became engaged to John Carr Jackson but broke off her engagement in 1898 and returned to England. When the war with South Africa broke out in October 1899, Leonard Courtney, a liberal MP, invited Emily to join the women’s branch of South African Conciliation Committee of which he was president. In July 1900 she learnt about the plight of the Boer women in war torn South Africa. She now started the South African Women and Children’s Distress fund. She also learnt about the existence of a camp for women in Port Elizabeth. She sailed for South Africa on 7 December 1900 and landed at Cape Town on the 27th. Here she learnt of camps in Johannesburg, Bloemfontein, Potchefstroom, Norvalspont, Kroonstad, Irene etc. She immediately applied for permission to visit the concentration camps.

Her chances of visiting the camps were not good as martial law had been declared over large parts of the Cape Colony. Lord Milner agreed that she could visit the camps, subject to the approval of Lord Kitchener. He granted her permission to proceed only as far as Bloemfontein. She left Cape Town on 22 January 1901 and arrived at Bloemfontein on the 24th where she stayed at the home of the Fichardt family. The camp was ‘dumped down’ as Emily put it, ‘on the southern slope of a kopje (small hill) right out on the bare brown veld.’ When she arrived in the camp she finally met the women she had come to help. There were then almost two thousand people living in the camp: the majority was women and children with a few surrendered men known as ‘hands-uppers.’ She had come with the object of providing such articles as could not be expected to be provided for by the authorities, ‘but I soon found out’, she wrote, and ‘that there was a scarcity of essential provisions. The accommodation was wholly inadequate. When the eight, ten or twelve people who lived in the bell tent were squeezed into it to find shelter against the heat of the sun, the dust or the rain, there was no room to stir and the air in the tent was beyond description, even though the flaps were rolled up properly and fastened. Soap was an article that was not dispensed. The water supply was inadequate. No bedstead or mattress was procurable. Fuel was scarce and had to be collected from the green bushes on the slopes of the kopjes by the people themselves. The rations were extremely meagre and when, as I frequently experienced, the actual quantity dispensed fell short of the amount prescribed, it simply meant famine.’ Sicknesses such as measles, bronchitis, pneumonia, dysentery and typhoid had already invaded the camp with fatal results. There were very few tents who did not house one or more sick persons, most of them children.

When she requested soap for the people, she was told that soap was a luxury. She nevertheless succeeded in having it listed as a necessity. She was aware of the difficulties involved in obtaining supplies from the coast on a railway line constantly threatened and disrupted, but she could not forgive what she called : ‘Crass male ignorance, helplessness and muddling’ I rub as much salt into the sore places in their minds’ because it is good for them; but I can’t help melting a little when they …confess that the whole thing is a grievous and gigantic blunder and present almost insoluble problems…’

She also visited the camps at Norvalspont, Aliwal North, Springfontein, Kimberley and Orange River and Mafeking. Everywhere she directed the attention of the authorities to the inadequate sanitary measures, meagre rations, and to inefficient organization. When she returned to Bloemfontein the military operations of March and April had brought a large number of extra families into the camp .She wrote that the population had redoubled and had swallowed up the results of improvements that had been effected. The appalling increase in illness and death and the fact that nobody in authority listened to her pleas, led to a decision to return to England. She hoped that once back in Britain she would be able to persuade the Government and the public to make an end to the conditions of misery and distress in the camps.

At the request of the Minister of War, St John Brodrick, she submitted her report on the camps to him in writing. Her report was also made known to the public by the committee of the Emergency Fund. It directed the attention of the public to the concentration camps and created a deep feeling of sympathy in all parts of the country but the debate on the report in the Houses of Parliament, was extremely disappointing as it was a picture of ‘apathy and impatience.’ In spite of fierce opposition from newspapers supporting the Government’s standpoint Emily continued to address meetings about the plight of the women and children. The Government appointed a ladies’ committee under Mrs. Millicent Fawcett to inspect the camps in South Africa. Hobhouse was not part of this committee. The committee’s report however repeated her findings and resulted in important improvements.

In October 1901 she decided to resume her work in South Africa. She steamed into Table Bay on 27 October 1901 but was not allowed to land. Five days later she was deported. The disappointment caused by her reception came as a great shock to her. She retired to the south of France to work on her first book ‘The Brunt of the War and where it fell’.

When the war ended in 1902 she saw it as her mission to support every effort aimed at rehabilitation and reconciliation of the war ravaged country. With this objective in view, she visited South Africa once more in 1903. Back in England she finalized her plan, conceived during her visit, of starting Boer home industries. She, accompanied by two helpers, returned to South Africa in 1905. They came equipped with the required apparatus to teach the women and girls the art of spinning and weaving. The first school was set up at Philippolis in the Free State. Eventually 27 schools were established in the Transvaal and the Free State. A lace school was also established at Koppies in the Free State.

The unveiling of the Women’s Monument at Bloemfontein took place on 16 December 1913. Emily Hobhouse was asked to unveil the monument but eventually her ill health prevented her from completing her journey and personally delivering her speech. On the initiative of Mrs. Steyn, a sum of ‘2,300 was collected for her in 1921 with which she purchased a house at St. Ives in Cornwall. She died on 8 June 1926. Her ashes found a final resting place in a niche at the Women’s Memorial at Bloemfontein on 26 October 1926.

Stephanus Johannes Paulus (Paul) Kruger was born in Bulhoek, Cradock on the 10 October, 1825 and died in Clarens, Switzerland on 14 July, 1904.

His parents were Casper Kruger and Elsie Steyn, fairly well-to-do, but landless stock-owners, compelled by drought, locusts and migrating herds of buck to lead a nomadic existence. Young Paul and his brothers were responsible for the stock. Nature hardened him and the Bible was his schoolbook and his daily companion from a very early age. He had a few months of formal instruction in reading and writing but could express his thoughts on paper.

In 1836 they joined the Potgieter trek. The young Paul underwent his baptism of fire at battle of Vechtkop. After a spell in Natal they moved north to Transvaal. When Paul was 16, he received his own farm, Waterkloof, near present-day Rustenburg. In 1842 he married Maria du Plessis who died of malaria in 1846. A year later he married Gezina du Plessis. Kruger served as a field-cornet during his teens and was the commandant of Rustenburg from 1854 onwards. He took an active part in punitive expeditions against various rebellious black chiefs, e.g. against Makapan in 1854 and Mapela in April 1858.

He was scarcely 25 when he became interested in political matters and was present at the Sand River Convention in 1852 where the South African Republic (ZAR) was granted its independence from Britain. Three years later he helped draw up the constitution of this new republic. He played a prominent role in pacifying and uniting the Boer communities in the early 1860’s when there was a vehement dissension amongst the burghers about ecclesiastical matters as well a political struggle following the election of M.W. Pretorius as president of the OFS. Kruger was elected commandant-general in April 1862. Peace was restored when an election was held in 1864. Pretorius became president for a second time and Kruger retained his position as commander-in-chief

President T.F. Burgers came to power in 1872 and as Kruger could not identify with his liberal- mindedness he tendered his resignation early in 1873. Burgers suffered a gradual decline in popularity. Kruger was elected to the Volksraad with a small majority in November 1874. He became reconciled to Burgers’s government to a certain extent. When they planned a new presidential election for early 1877 Kruger decided to make himself available for office. The election never took place as Shepstone annexed the republic on behalf of the British Empire. When Burgers left the country Kruger was elected vice-president by the Volksraad.

In an attempt to have the annexation set aside he visited London twice but both the journeys were in vain as the British government was adamant that they would not revoke the annexation. At a series of meetings addressed by Kruger the increasing opposition to British rule was evident Kruger went to work very diplomatically to restrain people from premature violence on the one hand and on the other hand to manoeuvre the British leaders into a morally untenable position. When Piet Bezuidenhout’s tactics of tax evasion, however, supported by Commandant Piet Cronje, at Potchefstroom, led to a riot in November 1880, Kruger was no longer able to restrain the people and at a gathering at Paardekraal in December 1880 they restored the republic. Kruger, Piet Joubert and M.W. Pretorius now formed a triumvirate to lead the government.

During the First War of Independence Kruger controlled the political fortunes of the ZAR from his temporary headquarters at Heidelberg. The invading British forces were defeated by Jobber’s burghers at Lang’s Nek, Ingogo, and Majuba Hill in 1881. The Gladstone government was unwilling to restore British authority by the further use of force and accepted Kruger’s proposal of qualified independence. This formed the basis of the negotiations that led to the Pretoria Convention in August 1881. The independence of the Republic was restored, subject to the suzerainty of Great Britain.

The Volksraad decided in 1882 that the office of State president should be re-instated according to the constitution. In the subsequent election of 1883 Kruger stood against Joubert, with Kruger the winner. One of the most important tasks awaiting him was the amendment of the Convention. During his visit to Europe, accompanied by General Nicolaas Smit and Reverend S.J. du Toit the London Convention was signed on 24 February 1884. Britain, however, still controlled the foreign policy of the republic.

The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand caused radical economical and political changes. Kruger was again reelected as President in 1888. The most vexing problem for Kruger and his State Secretary, Dr W.J. Leyds, was the influx of the Uitlanders (foreigners). Kruger was afraid that they would outvote the older white inhabitants of the Republic. To counter this possibility he made the conditions of naturalization more difficult. In 1890 the government restricted the Uitlander franchise for presidential and Volksraad elections to naturalized citizens who had been in the country for fourteen years. To satisfy Uitlander interests a second Volksraad was created, to be elected by naturalized citizens of two years standing. Though relatively few Uitanders were genuinely concerned about the franchise question, this nevertheless became a central issue between the British government and the government of the Republic.

From 1890 tensions in the country increased. Many mining executives realised that to enable deep-level gold production to prosper a much closer relationship between the industry and state had to be established and that this was only likely if they could realise a change of government. Kruger, on the other hand, was willing to do anything in his power to preserve the Republic’s independence. By 1893 Kruger’s popularity had suffered a sharp decline and he only narrowly defeated Joubert in the presidential election that year.

Relations between the two governments deteriorated further, following the abortive Jameson Raid in December 1895, set up by the then premier of the Cape, Cecil John Rhodes and a group of associates, many of whom had links with deep-level mining. In his handling of the crisis the President revealed great wisdom and statesmanship. Despite the urging of many of his people, he refused to execute Jameson and delivered him with his officers to the British authorities to be punished. Kruger, on the whole adopted a tolerant attitude to the Raiders and their leaders.

Sir Alfred Milner, the newly appointed High Commissioner and an ardent imperialist, became committed to the issues set forth by the British South African League in 1896. They agitated for the relaxation of the franchise laws and were soon urging the British Government to intervene directly in the affairs of the republic. Milner’s strategy from 1896 onwards was directed at the strengthening of the loyalty and political cohesion of the English-speaking South Africans and channelling Uitlander discontent and opposition to Kruger’s government.

While the situation progressively worsened Kruger turned to the Orange Free State for support and in 1898 a defensive and offensive alliance was negotiated between the two republics. This meant that in case of a war they would present a united front. Through President Steyn’s mediation a conference was held between Milner and Kruger in Bloemfontein at the end of May 1899. Here Milner made increasingly difficult demands as Britain was determined to create a unified South Africa. It was clear that the rights of the Uitlanders were no longer the main issue.

Both sides now prepared for war. The British troops in the country were reinforced. After consulting Steyn the ZAR sent an ultimatum to Britain, on 9 October 1899 demanding that they remove their troops from the ZAR’s borders within 48 hours. War broke out on 11 October 1899. As the aged president (he was 74) was too old to go to battle he prepared himself for the most strenuous work of directing, encouraging and commanding.

Kruger addressed the Volksraad for the last time in May 1900, pleading for continued faith in the national cause. As the enemy was close Kruger was obliged to leave Pretoria and to move east with General Louis Botha and the retreating army. For a time he was stationed at Machadodorp and Waterval Onder.

After the battle of Dalmanutha it was decided that the President was too old and frail and that he should leave for Europe to attempt to obtain sympathy and help from foreign rulers. On 11 September 1900 he crossed the Transvaal border on his way to Louren’o Marques and was soon on his way to Marseilles on board the ‘Gelderland’ sent by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands. He stayed in the Netherlands for the remainder of the war. He and his retinue finally moved to Clarens in Switzerland where he died on 14 July 1904. His body was embalmed and conveyed to Cape Town on board the ‘Batavier VI’. On 16 December 1904 he was interred in the Heroes’ Acre in Pretoria.

President T.F. Burgers came to power in 1872 and as Kruger could not identify with his liberal- mindedness he tendered his resignation early in 1873. Burgers suffered a gradual decline in popularity. Kruger was elected to the Volksraad with a small majority in November 1874. He became reconciled to Burgers’s government to a certain extent. When they planned a new presidential election for early 1877 Kruger decided to make himself available for office. The election never took place as Shepstone annexed the republic on behalf of the British Empire. When Burgers left the country Kruger was elected vice-president by the Volksraad.

Steyn attempted to persuade the Transvaal government to become more flexible in their policies regarding Uitlander franchise and the dynamite monopoly. In 1899 the situation came to a head when Milner broke off talks with Kruger about the franchise question during the Bloemfontein Conference (31 May-5 June 1899) – a meeting instigated by Steyn. War was now clearly imminent. On 27 September 1899 he presented to the Free State Volksraad a clear and final report on the negotiations and concluded that he would rather lose the independence of the Free State with honour.

During the first months of the war he solved innumerable problems and visited the commandos to encourage his burghers. After the catastrophic surrender of general Piet Cronje at Paardeberg Steyn called on the demoralised burghers to make a determined stand: first at Poplar Grove (07/03/1900) and then at Abrahamskraal (10/03/1900) but without success.

On 13 March Lord Roberts entered Bloemfontein. Steyn and the government had left Bloemfontein on the 12th. At Kroonstad Steyn was chairman of a joint Council of War where Kruger and General Piet Joubert were also present. Here they decided to abolish wagons and to employ mounted commandos in future thus giving the Boers increased mobility.

The OFS government now had to fall back repeatedly before the advance of Lord Roberts. When Bethlehem fell into British hands on 7 July the seat of the government was ‘in the field.’ Steyn and his executive council now remained with De Wet throughout the war.

Steyn often had to intervene when Transvaal wished to open negotiations with the British. In May 1900 he went to Pretoria to encourage a dejected president Kruger. When peace negotiations were mentioned Steyn remained adamant that the war was to continue. At Senekal a deeply upset Steyn heard about Botha’s negotiations with Kitchener at Middelburg (28/02/1901). Although nothing came of this, it was a clear indication that Transvaal’s resolve to continue with the war was again wavering. Steyn met with the Transvaal government at Klipdrif near Vrede and they decided to continue with the struggle. After being informed of another round of negotiation between the ZAR and Kitchener in May 1901 he forcefully protested that the OFS had not been consulted about the meeting with the Transvalers at Waterval.

On 31 October 1900 he rejoined De Wet in the Western Transvaal. and returned with him to the Orange Free State. Near Bothaville they almost fell into the enemy’s hands. In December Steyn accompanied De Wet during his first unsuccessful attempt to invade the Cape Colony. He also accompanied De Wet during his second abortive attempt to invade the Cape Colony in 10 February 1901.

When his term of office expired he insisted that they should hold a presidential election. Steyn was the only candidate and at Doornberg they solemnly administered the oath of office and reconstituted the executive council.

On 11 July 1901, Steyn, through the efforts of Ruiter, his personal servant, managed to evade capture at Reitz. His bodyguard and the members of his government however were captured and he had to reconstitute his cabinet.

Steyn’s official replies to British proclamations were legally well-reasoned, and were worded in a way that encouraged the burghers. On 19 March 1900 the President delivered his answer to Roberts’s annexation of the Free State. In this he solemnly declared that the republic of the Free State still existed, despite the so-called annexation. On 7 August 1901 there was another one of Kitchener’s threatening proclamations in which all who did not surrender before 15 September were threatened with banishment and confiscation of property. In Steyn’s reply of 15 August he pointed out to Kitchener his inadmissible methods of warfare.

After a few Republican victories towards the end of 1901, e.g. Tafelkop (20 December) and Groenkop (25 December) Steyn joined the commando of General de la Rey at Doornspruit in March 1902 to consult Dr von Rennenkampf about his eyes, which showed the first symptoms of the serious disease that subsequently afflicted him. Here Acting President Schalk Burger informed him that the first steps towards final negotiations for peace were under way. On 9 April 1902 the governments of the two republics met at Klerksdorp. Although his legs were already semi-paralysed, his will remained indomitable. His only condition for peace was the retention of independence. When the governments met Kitchener on 12 April at Pretoria it was decided to summon representatives of the burghers in the field, because only the people, according to the constitutions of the republics, could decide the question of their independence. Kitchener was extremely impressed by Steyn and said of him: ‘He is head and shoulders above the others, and has great influence.’ On 15 May, when he arrived at Vereeniging he was almost totally paralysed. He only attended two meetings but Rev J.D. Kestell and his generals kept him informed and consulted him regularly. On 29 May, he left for Kroonstad where medical attention was available. He resigned as president and was thus spared the bitterness of signing the treaty of Vereeniging. By the time his wife joined him on 11 June 1902 he was completely helpless. With the financial aid of friends they left for Europe to seek medical aid for his condition. For the next three years Prof. C. Winkler and various other physicians treated Steyn. In 1903 he had recovered sufficiently to return home where they settled at Onze Rust.

He welcomed self-government in 1907 as the movement for a united South Africa was very dear to him. Steyn was to serve as one of the Free State delegates at the National Convention at Durban in October/November 1908, where he was elected vice-chairman. He exercised great influence both in and out of the conference hall. He was a candidate for the premiership but because of health reasons he declined and retired to his farm. He, however, was not aloof from national affairs. His door was always open and friends and leaders often sought his advice.

On 16 December 1913 the National Women’s Memorial for which he, more than anyone else, had worked, was unveiled in Bloemfontein. On 28 November 1916 he died suddenly while addressing the Oranje Vrouevereniging in the Memorial Hall in Bloemfontein. He is buried at the foot of the Women’s Memorial.