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Climate Change

What You Can Do about Climate Change

This site provides more than 25 easy steps you can take at Home, School, the Office, and On the Road to protect the climate, reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) pollution, and save money. Take action today! Small steps add up, if we all do our part.

Small changes at home and in the yard can reduce GHG emissions and save money.

Easy steps at the office can reduce GHG emissions and help make the air cleaner.

Take action on the road to reduce car pollution, gas costs, and the nation's oil dependence.

Taking educational and action planning steps at school can help reduce GHG emissions.

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Extreme Heat Guidebook

Climate change affects human health by making extreme heat more common, more severe, and last longer. That is expected to continue into the future. EPA and CDC have jointly published a new online resource, Climate Change and Extreme Heat: What You Can Do to Prepare. This handbook, available below, explains the connection between climate change and extreme heat events, and outlines actions citizens can take to protect their health during extreme heat.

This resource builds on the 2006 EPA Excessive Heat Events Guidebook and includes up-to-date climate information from recent climate assessment reports, such as the 2014 National Climate Assessment, the 2016 Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States, and EPA’s 2016 Climate Change Indicators in the United States report.

      Climate Change and Extreme Heat: What You Can Do to Prepare (PDF)(20 pp, 5 MB)

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Climate Change Facts: Answers to Common Questions

This page answers some of the most commonly asked questions about climate change and its impacts. Click on the questions below to view the answers.

Is there a scientific consensus on climate change?

Yes. All major scientific agencies of the United States—including the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)—agree that climate change is occurring and that humans are contributing to it. In the 2014 National Climate Assessment, the Global Change Research Program concluded that "global climate is changing and this is apparent across the United States in a wide range of observations. The global warming of the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities, predominantly the burning of fossil fuels."[1] Hundreds of independent and governmental scientific organizations have released similar statements, both in the United States and worldwide.[1][2][3] Multiple analyses of peer-reviewed science literature have repeatedly shown that more than 97 percent of scientists in the field agree that the world is unequivocally warming, and that human activity is the primary cause.[3]

This broad consensus that climate change is happening and is caused primarily by excess greenhouse gases from human activities is based on multiple lines of evidence, from basic physics to the patterns of change through the climate system (including the atmosphere, oceans, land, biosphere, and cryosphere). However, this doesn't necessarily mean that every scientist agrees on every component of the climate change problem. Scientists are still researching a number of important questions, including exactly how sensitive Earth's climate is to human emissions of various heat-trapping gases, what the consequences of warming will be in specific regions of the world, and how other future changes in oceans and clouds will affect climate change. Scientists continue to research these questions so society can be better informed about how to plan for a changing climate. However, enough certainty exists about basic causes and effects of climate change to justify taking actions that reduce risks.

» Learn more about climate change science.

				» Read NASA's web page, Scientific consensus: Earth's climate is warming.

What is the evidence that proves the climate is changing?

Our understanding of climate change is based on multiple lines of evidence, from the top of the atmosphere to the depths of the oceans, and is documented by hundreds of studies conducted by thousands of scientists around the world. We know how our climate has changed because of the physics of how our Earth system works, modeled simulations of past and future changes, and observations of recent trends in climate change indicators. For instance, records dating back to the 1800s show that the global average temperature increased by more than 1.5°F over the last century.[4] Every year since 1977 has had an average global temperature warmer than the 20th century average. In fact, 15 of the 16 warmest years on record have occurred since the beginning of the 21st century.[5] No matter how you look at the data, higher global average temperatures in recent years are unambiguous.

Rising global temperatures are just one of the many indicators of climate change. Snow and rainfall patterns are shifting, and more extreme weather events, like heat waves and heavy rainstorms, are already taking place. The planet's oceans and glaciers have also experienced changes: oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, ice caps are melting, and sea levels are rising. The sum total of these and other indicators are evidence that our world is getting warmer.

» Learn more about the indicators of climate change.

Are human activities or natural variations in climate responsible for the climate change being observed today?

Many lines of evidence demonstrate that human activities are primarily responsible for recent climate changes. First, basic physics shows that increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere will cause the climate to warm. Second, modeling studies show that when human influences are removed from the equation, the global climate would have actually cooled slightly over the past half century. And third, the pattern of warming through the layers of the atmosphere demonstrates that human-induced heat-trapping gases are responsible, rather than some natural change.

The Earth does go through natural cycles of warming and cooling, caused by factors such as changes in the sun or volcanic activity. These factors have been closely examined, and the warming we have seen in the past 50 years cannot be explained by natural factors alone. Records from ice cores, tree rings, and other forms of "natural thermometers" show that recent climate change is unusually rapid compared to past changes. Global temperatures over the last 100 years are unusually high when compared to temperatures over the last several thousand years, and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are currently higher than at any time in at least the last 800,000 years.[6] Human influences on the climate system—including greenhouse gas emissions, atmospheric particulates, and land-use and land-cover change—are required to explain recent changes. This figure illustrates one piece of evidence that shows that recent global warming is primarily a result of greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.

Models that account only for the effects of natural processes are not able to explain the warming observed over the past century. Models that also account for the greenhouse gases emitted by humans are able to explain this warming. Source USGCRP (2014)

» Learn more about the causes of climate change.

How can carbon dioxide hurt us?

Carbon dioxide is a necessary ingredient for plants to perform photosynthesis, and a critical component of our atmosphere. However, you can have too much of a good thing. The excess carbon dioxide we are adding to the atmosphere increases global temperatures, leading to climate changes that can harm plants, animals, and humans.

» Learn more about the impacts of climate change on human health, society, and ecosystems.

How can a change of one or two degrees in global average temperatures have an impact on our lives?

Changing the average global temperature by even a degree or two can lead to serious consequences around the globe. For about every 2°F of warming, we can expect to see

5–15% reductions in the yields of crops as currently grown.

3–10% increases in the amount of rain falling during the heaviest precipitation events, which can increase flooding risks.

5–10% decreases in stream flow in some river basins, including the Arkansas and the Rio Grande.

200%–400% increases in the area burned by wildfire in parts of the western United States.[7]

Global average temperatures have increased more than 1.5°F since 1880.[4] Many of the extreme precipitation and heat events that we have seen in recent years are consistent with what we would expect given this amount of warming. Increases in average global temperatures are expected to be between 0.5 and 8.6°F by 2100, with a likely increase of at least 2.7°F, depending on the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the future.[3]

» Learn more about the future of climate change.

				» Learn about projected climate change action with, and without, global action on climate change, and the benefits to the United States of global action.

Do a few extra cold or snowy winters in your hometown mean that climate change is not happening?

No. A few extra cold or snowy winters in your hometown don't mean that global warming isn't happening. We know that global average temperatures are rising. However, even with this global warming we can expect to have some colder-than-average seasons or even colder-than-average years at the local or regional level. For example, in the eastern United States, the winters of 2010 and 2011 were colder than the average winters from the previous decades. Even as the longer climate trend increases, there is still variability—ups and downs—in the short term weather.

In fact, extra snowy winters can be expected in some areas. In a warmer climate, more water vapor is held in the atmosphere causing more intense rain and snow storms. As the climate warms, we do expect the duration of the snow season to decrease; however, as long as it is still cold enough to snow, a warming climate can lead to bigger snowstorms.[8]

» Learn more about weather and climate.

How does water vapor in our atmosphere contribute to global warming?

Higher concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause Earth to warm. Warmer temperatures increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Because water vapor is also a greenhouse gas, this leads to even further warming. In this way, water vapor actually magnifies the warming caused by excess carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.[6]

» Learn more about the causes of climate change.

Do emissions of carbon dioxide from human activities have a big impact on Earth's climate?

Yes. Plants, oceans, and soils release and absorb large quantities of carbon dioxide as a part of the Earth's natural carbon cycle. These natural emissions and absorptions of carbon dioxide on average balance out over time. However, the carbon dioxide from human activities is not part of this natural balance. Ice core measurements reveal that carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are higher than they have been for at least 800,000 years.[6] The global warming that has been observed in recent decades was caused by elevated levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, due primarily to human activities.[1]

» Learn more about the recent role of the greenhouse effect.

In the past, has Earth been warmer than it is today? If so, does that mean we shouldn't worry about global warming?

There were times in the distant past when Earth was warmer than it is now. However, human societies have developed and thrived during the relatively stable climate that has existed since the last ice age. Due to excess carbon dioxide pollution, the climate is no longer stable and is instead projected to change faster than at any other time in human history. Impacts from climate change are already occurring and are expected to become increasingly disruptive in many sectors. Sea level rise, extreme weather events, and other effects of climate change all post risks to human health, critical infrastructure, agriculture, and the ecosystems that support us.[1]

» Learn more about the impacts of climate change on human health, society, and ecosystems.

Is the hole in the ozone layer related to the climate change we are seeing today?

The ozone hole and climate change are two separate issues. The "ozone hole" refers to the destruction of a layer of ozone molecules found high in Earth's atmosphere. When healthy, this ozone layer helps to shield Earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. The ozone layer has become thinner because of chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons that were once commonly used in products ranging from spray cans to foam furniture cushions. A thinner ozone layer allows more ultraviolet rays to reach Earth, increasing the risk to humans from skin cancer, cataracts, and other health impacts. This, however, has only minor effects on climate change.

» Learn more about the science of stratospheric ozone depletion.

Will a small rise in sea level affect people (even in the United States)?

Yes. A small rise in sea level will affect many people, even in the United States. Without adaptation, coastal flooding and land loss will affect and displace hundreds of millions of people around the world by the year 2100. Global sea level has risen approximately 7.5 inches, on average, over the period since 1870. This rise has already put coastal communities and infrastructure at risk, including water supply and energy infrastructure; evacuation routes; ports, tourism, and fishing sites; communities; and ecosystems. By the year 2100, sea level is projected to rise another one to four feet.[3]

Rising seas and more frequent coastal storms make the associated storm surge and flooding events more destructive. For example, a sea level rise of two feet, without any changes in storms, would more than triple the frequency of dangerous coastal flooding throughout most of the northeast United States. Flood waters can damage homes, disrupt energy, communications, or transportation systems, and create health hazards during and after floods. [9]

» Learn more about the impacts of climate change on coastal areas.

Are the temperature records showing global warming reliable?

Yes. Multiple temperature records from all over the world have all shown a warming trend, and these records have been deemed reliable by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), among others. Other observations that point to higher global temperature includes: warmer oceans, melting Arctic sea ice and glaciers, sea level rise, increasing precipitation, and changing plant and animal cycles. [10]

» Learn more about climate change indicators.

Is it too late to do anything about climate change?

It is not too late to have a significant impact on future climate change and its effects on us. With appropriate actions by governments, communities, individuals, and businesses, we can reduce the amount of greenhouse gas pollution we release and lower the risk of much greater warming and severe consequences. Many of the actions that we can take to address climate change will have other benefits, such as cleaner, healthier air. In addition, communities can take action to prepare for the changes we know are coming.

» Learn more about adapting to climate change and what you can do, and the benefits to the United States of global action.

References

1. USGCRP (2014). Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment. Melillo, Jerry M., Theres (T.C.) Richmond, and Gary W. Yohe, Eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program.

2.NRC (2011). America's Climate Choices: Final Report. Exit National Research Council. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA.

3. IPCC (2013). Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

4. EPA (2016). Climate Change Indicators in the United States: U.S. and Global Temperature.

5. NOAA (2016). State of the Climate: Global Analysis - Annual 2015. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information.

6. EPA (2016). Climate Change Indicators in the United States: Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases.

7. NRC (2011). Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia. Exit National Research Council. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA.

8. EPA (2016). Climate Change Indicators in the United States: Snowfall.

9. USGCRP (2016). The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Crimmins, A., J. Balbus, J.L. Gamble, C.B. Beard, J.E. Bell, D. Dodgen, R.J. Eisen, N. Fann, M.D. Hawkins, S.C. Herring, L. Jantarasami, D.M. Mills, S. Saha, M.C. Sarofim, J. Trtanj, and L. Ziska, Eds. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC.

10. EPA (2016). Climate Change Indicators in the United States.

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Glossary of Climate Change Terms

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A

Abrupt Climate Change

	Sudden (on the order of decades), large changes in some major component of the climate system, with rapid, widespread effects.

Adaptation

	Adjustment or preparation of natural or human systems to a new or changing environment which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.

Adaptive Capacity

	The ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences.

Aerosols

	Small particles or liquid droplets in the atmosphere that can absorb or reflect sunlight depending on their composition.

Afforestation

	Planting of new forests on lands that historically have not contained forests. [1]

Albedo

	The amount of solar radiation reflected from an object or surface, often expressed as a percentage.

Alternative Energy

	Energy derived from nontraditional sources (e.g., compressed natural gas, solar, hydroelectric, wind). [2]

Annex I Countries/Parties

	Group of countries included in Annex I (as amended in 1998) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, including all the developed countries in the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, and economies in transition. By default, the other countries are referred to as Non-Annex I countries. Under Articles 4.2 (a) and 4.2 (b) of the Convention, Annex I countries commit themselves specifically to the aim of returning individually or jointly to their 1990 levels of greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2000. [2]

Anthropogenic

	Made by people or resulting from human activities. Usually used in the context of emissions that are produced as a result of human activities. [3]

Atmosphere

	The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixing ratio), helium, radiatively active greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio), and ozone. In addition the atmosphere contains water vapor, whose amount is highly variable but typically 1% volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols. [1]

Atmospheric Lifetime

	Atmospheric lifetime is the average time that a molecule resides in the atmosphere before it is removed by chemical reaction or deposition. In general, if a quantity of a compound is emitted into the atmosphere at a particular time, about 35 percent of that quantity will remain in the atmosphere at the end of the compound's atmospheric lifetime. This fraction will continue to decrease in an exponential way, so that about 15 percent of the quantity will remain at the end of two times the atmospheric lifetime, etc. (Some compounds, most notably carbon dioxide, have more complex lifecycles, and their atmospheric lifetimes are not defined by a simple exponential equation.) Greenhouse gas lifetimes can range from a few years to a few thousand years.

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B

Biofuels

	Gas or liquid fuel made from plant material. Includes wood, wood waste, wood liquors, peat, railroad ties, wood sludge, spent sulfite liquors, agricultural waste, straw, tires, fish oils, tall oil, sludge waste, waste alcohol, municipal solid waste, landfill gases, other waste, and ethanol blended into motor gasoline. [4]

Biogeochemical Cycle

	Movements through the Earth system of key chemical constituents essential to life, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus. [3]

Biomass

	Materials that are biological in origin, including organic material (both living and dead) from above and below ground, for example, trees, crops, grasses, tree litter, roots, and animals and animal waste. [4]

Biosphere

	The part of the Earth system comprising all ecosystems and living organisms, in the atmosphere, on land (terrestrial biosphere) or in the oceans (marine biosphere), including derived dead organic matter, such as litter, soil organic matter and oceanic detritus. [1]

Black Carbon Aerosol

	Black carbon (BC) is the most strongly light-absorbing component of particulate matter (PM), and is formed by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass. It is emitted directly into the atmosphere in the form of fine particles (PM2.5).

Borehole

	Any exploratory hole drilled into the Earth or ice to gather geophysical data. Climate researchers often take ice core samples, a type of borehole, to predict atmospheric composition in earlier years. See ice core.

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C

Carbon Cycle

	All parts (reservoirs) and fluxes of carbon. The cycle is usually thought of as four main reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange. The reservoirs are the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere (usually includes freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments (includes fossil fuels). The annual movements of carbon, the carbon exchanges between reservoirs, occur because of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth, but most of that pool is not involved with rapid exchange with the atmosphere. [3]

Carbon Dioxide

	A naturally occurring gas, and also a by-product of burning fossil fuels and biomass, as well as land-use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal human caused greenhouse gas that affects the Earth's radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other greenhouse gases are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential of 1. See climate change and global warming. [5]

Carbon Dioxide Equivalent

	A metric measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases based upon their global warming potential (GWP). Carbon dioxide equivalents are commonly expressed as "million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCO2Eq)." The carbon dioxide equivalent for a gas is derived by multiplying the tons of the gas by the associated GWP.

MMTCO2Eq = (million metric tons of a gas) * (GWP of the gas)

See greenhouse gas, global warming potential, metric ton.

Carbon Dioxide Fertilization

	The enhancement of the growth of plants as a result of increased atmospheric CO2 concentration. Depending on their mechanism of photosynthesis, certain types of plants are more sensitive to changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration. [1]

Carbon Footprint

	The total amount of greenhouse gases that are emitted into the atmosphere each year by a person, family, building, organization, or company. A persons carbon footprint includes greenhouse gas emissions from fuel that an individual burns directly, such as by heating a home or riding in a car. It also includes greenhouse gases that come from producing the goods or services that the individual uses, including emissions from power plants that make electricity, factories that make products, and landfills where trash gets sent.

Carbon Sequestration

	Terrestrial, or biologic, carbon sequestration is the process by which trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide, release the oxygen, and store the carbon. Geologic sequestration is one step in the process of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), and involves injecting carbon dioxide deep underground where it stays permanently.

Carbon Capture and Sequestration

	Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is a set of technologies that can greatly reduce carbon dioxide emissions from new and existing coal- and gas-fired power plants, industrial processes, and other stationary sources of carbon dioxide. It is a three-step process that includes capture of carbon dioxide from power plants or industrial sources; transport of the captured and compressed carbon dioxide (usually in pipelines); and underground injection and geologic sequestration, or permanent storage, of that carbon dioxide in rock formations that contain tiny openings or pores that trap and hold the carbon dioxide.

Chlorofluorocarbons

	Gases covered under the 1987 Montreal Protocol and used for refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, insulation, solvents, or aerosol propellants. Since they are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere, CFCs drift into the upper atmosphere where, given suitable conditions, they break down ozone. These gases are being replaced by other compounds: hydrochlorofluorocarbons, an interim replacement for CFCs that are also covered under the Montreal Protocol, and hydrofluorocarbons, which are covered under the Kyoto Protocol. All these substances are also greenhouse gases. See hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, ozone depleting substance. [2]

Climate

	Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather," or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands of years. The classical period is 3 decades, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. See weather. [1]

Climate Change

	Climate change refers to any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time. In other words, climate change includes major changes in temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among others, that occur over several decades or longer.

Climate Feedback

	A process that acts to amplify or reduce direct warming or cooling effects.

Climate Lag

	The delay that occurs in climate change as a result of some factor that changes only very slowly. For example, the effects of releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere occur gradually over time because the ocean takes a long time to warm up in response to a change in radiation. See climate, climate change.

Climate Model

	A quantitative way of representing the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. Models can range from relatively simple to quite comprehensive. See General Circulation Model. [3]

Climate Sensitivity

	In Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports, equilibrium climate sensitivity refers to the equilibrium change in global mean surface temperature following a doubling of the atmospheric (equivalent) CO2 concentration. More generally, equilibrium climate sensitivity refers to the equilibrium change in surface air temperature following a unit change in radiative forcing (degrees Celsius, per watts per square meter, (C/Wm-2). One method of evaluating the equilibrium climate sensitivity requires very long simulations with Coupled General Circulation Models (Climate model). The effective climate sensitivity is a related measure that circumvents this requirement. It is evaluated from model output for evolving non-equilibrium conditions. It is a measure of the strengths of the feedbacks at a particular time and may vary with forcing history and climate state. See climate, radiative forcing. [1]

Climate System (or Earth System)

	The five physical components (atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere) that are responsible for the climate and its variations. [3]

Coal Mine Methane

	Coal mine methane is the subset of coalbed methane that is released from the coal seams during the process of coal mining. For more information, visit the Coalbed Methane Outreach program site.

Coalbed Methane

	Coalbed methane is methane contained in coal seams, and is often referred to as virgin coalbed methane, or coal seam gas. For more information, visit the Coalbed Methane Outreach program site.

Co-Benefit

	The benefits of policies that are implemented for various reasons at the same time including climate change mitigation acknowledging that most policies designed to address greenhouse gas mitigation also have other, often at least equally important, rationales (e.g., related to objectives of development, sustainability, and equity).

Concentration

	Amount of a chemical in a particular volume or weight of air, water, soil, or other medium. See parts per billion, parts per million. [4]

Conference of the Parties

	The supreme body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It comprises more than 180 nations that have ratified the Convention. Its first session was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995 and it is expected to continue meeting on a yearly basis. The COP's role is to promote and review the implementation of the Convention. It will periodically review existing commitments in light of the Convention's objective, new scientific findings, and the effectiveness of national climate change programs. See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Coral Bleaching

	The process in which a coral colony, under environmental stress expels the microscopic algae (zooxanthellae) that live in symbiosis with their host organisms (polyps). The affected coral colony appears whitened.

Cryosphere

	One of the interrelated components of the Earth's system, the cryosphere is frozen water in the form of snow, permanently frozen ground (permafrost), floating ice, and glaciers. Fluctuations in the volume of the cryosphere cause changes in ocean sea level, which directly impact the atmosphere and biosphere. [3]

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D

Deforestation

	Those practices or processes that result in the conversion of forested lands for non-forest uses. Deforestation contributes to increasing carbon dioxide concentrations for two reasons: 1) the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide; and 2) trees that once removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis are no longer present. [4]

Desertification

	Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Further, the UNCCD (The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification) defines land degradation as a reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation. Conversion of forest to non-forest.

Dryland Farming

	A technique that uses soil moisture conservation and seed selection to optimize production under dry conditions.

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E

Eccentricity

	The extent to which the Earth's orbit around the Sun departs from a perfect circle.

Ecosystem

	Any natural unit or entity including living and non-living parts that interact to produce a stable system through cyclic exchange of materials. [3]

El NiÃ±o - Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

	El NiÃ±o in its original sense, is a warm water current that periodically flows along the coast of Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. This oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of the intertropical surface pressure pattern and circulation in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon is collectively known as El NiÃ±o-Southern Oscillation. During an El NiÃ±o event, the prevailing trade winds weaken and the equatorial countercurrent strengthens, causing warm surface waters in the Indonesian area to flow eastward to overlie the cold waters of the Peru current. This event has great impact on the wind, sea surface temperature, and precipitation patterns in the tropical Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and in many other parts of the world. The opposite of an El NiÃ±o event is called La NiÃ±a. [6]

Emissions

	The release of a substance (usually a gas when referring to the subject of climate change) into the atmosphere.

Emissions Factor

	A unique value for scaling emissions to activity data in terms of a standard rate of emissions per unit of activity (e.g., grams of carbon dioxide emitted per barrel of fossil fuel consumed, or per pound of product produced). [4]

Energy Efficiency

	Using less energy to provide the same service. [7]

ENERGY STAR

	A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency voluntary program that helps businesses and individuals save money and protect our climate through superior energy efficiency. Learn more about ENERGY STAR.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

	The concept that the natural greenhouse effect has been enhanced by increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (such as CO2 and methane) emitted as a result of human activities. These added greenhouse gases cause the earth to warm. See greenhouse effect.

Enteric Fermentation

	Livestock, especially cattle, produce methane as part of their digestion. This process is called enteric fermentation, and it represents one third of the emissions from the agriculture sector.

Evaporation

	The process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor. [8]

Evapotranspiration

	The combined process of evaporation from the Earth's surface and transpiration from vegetation. [1]

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F

Feedback Mechanisms

	Factors which increase or amplify (positive feedback) or decrease (negative feedback) the rate of a process. An example of positive climatic feedback is the ice-albedo feedback. See climate feedback. [3]

Fluorinated Gases

	Powerful synthetic greenhouse gases such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons) and are often used in coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol propellants. These gases are emitted in small quantities compared to carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), or nitrous oxide (N2O), but because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases (High GWP gasesÂ?).

Fluorocarbons

	Carbon-fluorine compounds that often contain other elements such as hydrogen, chlorine, or bromine. Common fluorocarbons include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). See chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, ozone depleting substance. [3]

Forcing Mechanism

	A process that alters the energy balance of the climate system, i.e. changes the relative balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation from Earth. Such mechanisms include changes in solar irradiance, volcanic eruptions, and enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect by emissions of greenhouse gases. See radiation, infrared radiation, radiative forcing.

Fossil Fuel

	A general term for organic materials formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. [4]

Fuel Switching

	In general, this is substituting one type of fuel for another. In the climate-change discussion it is implicit that the substituted fuel produces lower carbon emissions per unit energy produced than the original fuel, e.g., natural gas for coal.

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G

General Circulation Model (GCM)

	A global, three-dimensional computer model of the climate system which can be used to simulate human-induced climate change. GCMs are highly complex and they represent the effects of such factors as reflective and absorptive properties of atmospheric water vapor, greenhouse gas concentrations, clouds, annual and daily solar heating, ocean temperatures and ice boundaries. The most recent GCMs include global representations of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface. See climate modeling. [3]

Geosphere

	The soils, sediments, and rock layers of the Earth's crust, both continental and beneath the ocean floors.

Glacier

	A multi-year surplus accumulation of snowfall in excess of snowmelt on land and resulting in a mass of ice at least 0.1 km2 in area that shows some evidence of movement in response to gravity. A glacier may terminate on land or in water. Glacier ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth, and second only to the oceans as the largest reservoir of total water. Glaciers are found on every continent except Australia. [3]

Global Average Temperature

	An estimate of Earths mean surface air temperature averaged over the entire planet.

Global Warming

	The recent and ongoing global average increase in temperature near the Earths surface.

Global Warming Potential

	A measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs over a particular period of time (usually 100 years), compared to carbon dioxide.

Greenhouse Effect

	Trapping and build-up of heat in the atmosphere (troposphere) near the Earths surface. Some of the heat flowing back toward space from the Earth's surface is absorbed by water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and several other gases in the atmosphere and then reradiated back toward the Earths surface. If the atmospheric concentrations of these greenhouse gases rise, the average temperature of the lower atmosphere will gradually increase. See greenhouse gas, anthropogenic, climate, global warming. [4]

Greenhouse Gas (GHG)

	Any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride. [4]

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H

Habitat Fragmentation

	A process during which larger areas of habitat are broken into a number of smaller patches of smaller total area, isolated from each other by a matrix of habitats unlike the original habitat. (Fahrig 2003)

Halocarbons

	Compounds containing either chlorine, bromine or fluorine and carbon. Such compounds can act as powerful greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The chlorine and bromine containing halocarbons are also involved in the depletion of the ozone layer. [1]

Heat Island

	An urban area characterized by temperatures higher than those of the surrounding non-urban area. As urban areas develop, buildings, roads, and other infrastructure replace open land and vegetation. These surfaces absorb more solar energy, which can create higher temperatures in urban areas. [8]

Heat Waves

	A prolonged period of excessive heat, often combined with excessive humidity. [9]

Hydrocarbons

	Substances containing only hydrogen and carbon. Fossil fuels are made up of hydrocarbons.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

	Compounds containing hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, and carbon atoms. Although ozone depleting substances, they are less potent at destroying stratospheric ozone than chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They have been introduced as temporary replacements for CFCs and are also greenhouse gases. See ozone depleting substance.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

	Compounds containing only hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms. They were introduced as alternatives to ozone depleting substances in serving many industrial, commercial, and personal needs. HFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. They do not significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful greenhouse gases with global warming potentials ranging from 140 (HFC-152a) to 11,700 (HFC-23).

Hydrologic Cycle

	The process of evaporation, vertical and horizontal transport of vapor, condensation, precipitation, and the flow of water from continents to oceans. It is a major factor in determining climate through its influence on surface vegetation, the clouds, snow and ice, and soil moisture. The hydrologic cycle is responsible for 25 to 30 percent of the mid-latitudes' heat transport from the equatorial to polar regions. [3]

Hydrosphere

	The component of the climate system comprising liquid surface and subterranean water, such as: oceans, seas, rivers, fresh water lakes, underground water etc. [1]

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I

Ice Core

	A cylindrical section of ice removed from a glacier or an ice sheet in order to study climate patterns of the past. By performing chemical analyses on the air trapped in the ice, scientists can estimate the percentage of carbon dioxide and other trace gases in the atmosphere at a given time. Analysis of the ice itself can give some indication of historic temperatures.

Indirect Emissions

	Indirect emissions from a building, home or business are those emissions of greenhouse gases that occur as a result of the generation of electricity used in that building. These emissions are called "indirect" because the actual emissions occur at the power plant which generates the electricity, not at the building using the electricity.

Industrial Revolution

	A period of rapid industrial growth with far-reaching social and economic consequences, beginning in England during the second half of the 18th century and spreading to Europe and later to other countries including the United States. The industrial revolution marks the beginning of a strong increase in combustion of fossil fuels and related emissions of carbon dioxide. [8]

Infrared Radiation

	Infrared radiation consists of light whose wavelength is longer than the red color in the visible part of the spectrum, but shorter than microwave radiation. Infrared radiation can be perceived as heat. The Earths surface, the atmosphere, and clouds all emit infrared radiation, which is also known as terrestrial or long-wave radiation. In contrast, solar radiation is mainly short-wave radiation because of the temperature of the Sun. See radiation, greenhouse effect, enhanced greenhouse effect, global warming. [1]

Intergovernmental Panel on climate Change (IPCC)

	The IPCC was established jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988. The purpose of the IPCC is to assess information in the scientific and technical literature related to all significant components of the issue of climate change. The IPCC draws upon hundreds of the world's expert scientists as authors and thousands as expert reviewers. Leading experts on climate change and environmental, social, and economic sciences from some 60 nations have helped the IPCC to prepare periodic assessments of the scientific underpinnings for understanding global climate change and its consequences. With its capacity for reporting on climate change, its consequences, and the viability of adaptation and mitigation measures, the IPCC is also looked to as the official advisory body to the world's governments on the state of the science of the climate change issue. For example, the IPCC organized the development of internationally accepted methods for conducting national greenhouse gas emission inventories.

Inundation

	The submergence of land by water, particularly in a coastal setting. [10]

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L

Landfill

	Land waste disposal site in which waste is generally spread in thin layers, compacted, and covered with a fresh layer of soil each day. [4]

Latitude

	The location north or south in reference to the equator, which is designated at zero (0) degrees. Lines of latitude are parallel to the equator and circle the globe. The North and South poles are at 90 degrees North and South latitude. [11]

Least Developed Country

	A country with low indicators of socioeconomic development and human resources, as well as economic vulnerability, as determined by the United Nations. [12]

Longwave Radiation

	Radiation emitted in the spectral wavelength greater than about 4 micrometers, corresponding to the radiation emitted from the Earth and atmosphere. It is sometimes referred to as 'terrestrial radiation' or 'infrared radiation,' although somewhat imprecisely. See infrared radiation. [3]

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M

Megacities

	Cities with populations over 10 million.

Methane (CH4)

	A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential most recently estimated at 25 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2). Methane is produced through anaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition of waste in landfills, animal digestion, decomposition of animal wastes, production and distribution of natural gas and petroleum, coal production, and incomplete fossil fuel combustion. The GWP is from the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). For more information visit EPA's Methane page.

Metric Ton

	Common international measurement for the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions. A metric ton is equal to 2205 lbs or 1.1 short tons. See short ton. [4]

Mitigation

	A human intervention to reduce the human impact on the climate system; it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks. [8]

Mount Pinatubo

	A volcano in the Philippine Islands that erupted in 1991. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo ejected enough particulate and sulfate aerosol matter into the atmosphere to block some of the incoming solar radiation from reaching Earth's atmosphere. This effectively cooled the planet from 1992 to 1994, masking the warming that had been occurring for most of the 1980s and 1990s. [3]

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

	Residential solid waste and some non-hazardous commercial, institutional, and industrial wastes. This material is generally sent to municipal landfills for disposal. See landfill.

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N

Natural Gas

	Underground deposits of gases consisting of 50 to 90 percent methane (CH4) and small amounts of heavier gaseous hydrocarbon compounds such as propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10).

Natural Variability

	Variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations or statistics of extremes) of the climate on all time and space scales beyond that of individual weather events. Natural variations in climate over time are caused by internal processes of the climate system, such as El NiÃ±o as well as changes in external influences, such as volcanic activity and variations in the output of the sun. [8] [13]

Nitrogen Cycle

	The natural circulation of nitrogen among the atmosphere, plants, animals, and microorganisms that live in soil and water. Nitrogen takes on a variety of chemical forms throughout the nitrogen cycle, including nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

	Gases consisting of one molecule of nitrogen and varying numbers of oxygen molecules. Nitrogen oxides are produced in the emissions of vehicle exhausts and from power stations. In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides can contribute to formation of photochemical ozone (smog), can impair visibility, and have health consequences; they are thus considered pollutants. [3]

Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

	A powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 298 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2). Major sources of nitrous oxide include soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning. The GWP is from the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). [3]

Natural emissions of N2O are mainly from bacteria breaking down nitrogen in soils and the oceans. Nitrous oxide is mainly removed from the atmosphere through destruction in the stratosphere by ultraviolet radiation and associated chemical reactions, but it can also be consumed by certain types of bacteria in soils.

Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs)

	Organic compounds, other than methane, that participate in atmospheric photochemical reactions.

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O

Ocean Acidification

	Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in sea water causing a measurable increase in acidity (i.e., a reduction in ocean pH). This may lead to reduced calcification rates of calcifying organisms such as corals, mollusks, algae and crustaceans. [8]

Oxidize

	To chemically transform a substance by combining it with oxygen. [4]

Ozone

	Ozone, the triatomic form of oxygen (O3), is a gaseous atmospheric constituent. In the troposphere, it is created by photochemical reactions involving gases resulting both from natural sources and from human activities (photochemical smog). In high concentrations, tropospheric ozone can be harmful to a wide range of living organisms. Tropospheric ozone acts as a greenhouse gas. In the stratosphere, ozone is created by the interaction between solar ultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen (O2). Stratospheric ozone plays a decisive role in the stratospheric radiative balance. Depletion of stratospheric ozone, due to chemical reactions that may be enhanced by climate change, results in an increased ground-level flux of ultraviolet (UV-) B radiation. See atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation. [6]

Ozone Depleting Substance (ODS)

	A family of man-made compounds that includes, but are not limited to, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), bromofluorocarbons (halons), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These compounds have been shown to deplete stratospheric ozone, and therefore are typically referred to as ODSs. See ozone. [4]

Ozone Layer

	The layer of ozone that begins approximately 15 km above Earth and thins to an almost negligible amount at about 50 km, shields the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The highest natural concentration of ozone (approximately 10 parts per million by volume) occurs in the stratosphere at approximately 25 km above Earth. The stratospheric ozone concentration changes throughout the year as stratospheric circulation changes with the seasons. Natural events such as volcanoes and solar flares can produce changes in ozone concentration, but man-made changes are of the greatest concern. See stratosphere, ultraviolet radiation. [3]

Ozone Precursors

	Chemical compounds, such as carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides, which in the presence of solar radiation react with other chemical compounds to form ozone, mainly in the troposphere. See troposphere. [4]

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P

Particulate matter (PM)

	Very small pieces of solid or liquid matter such as particles of soot, dust, fumes, mists or aerosols. The physical characteristics of particles, and how they combine with other particles, are part of the feedback mechanisms of the atmosphere. See aerosol, sulfate aerosols. [3]

Parts Per Billion (ppb)

	Number of parts of a chemical found in one billion parts of a particular gas, liquid, or solid mixture. See concentration.

Parts Per Million by Volume (ppmv)

	Number of parts of a chemical found in one million parts of a particular gas, liquid, or solid. See concentration.

Parts Per Trillion (ppt)

	Number of parts of a chemical found in one trillion parts of a particular gas, liquid or solid. See concentration.

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)

	A group of chemicals composed of carbon and fluorine only. These chemicals (predominantly CF4 and C2F6) were introduced as alternatives, along with hydrofluorocarbons, to the ozone depleting substances. In addition, PFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. PFCs do not harm the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful greenhouse gases: CF4 has a global warming potential (GWP) of 7,390 and C2F6 has a GWP of 12,200. The GWP is from the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). These chemicals are predominantly human-made, though there is a small natural source of CF4. See ozone depleting substance.

Permafrost

	Perennially (continually) frozen ground that occurs where the temperature remains below 0ÂºC for several years. [8]

Phenology

	The timing of natural events, such as flower blooms and animal migration, which is influenced by changes in climate. Phenology is the study of such important seasonal events. Phenological events are influenced by a combination of climate factors, including light, temperature, rainfall, and humidity.

Photosynthesis

	The process by which plants take CO2 from the air (or bicarbonate in water) to build carbohydrates, releasing O2 in the process. There are several pathways of photosynthesis with different responses to atmospheric CO2 concentrations. See carbon sequestration, carbon dioxide fertilization. [1]

Precession

	The wobble over thousands of years of the tilt of the Earths axis with respect to the plane of the solar system. [3]

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z - #

R

Radiation

	Energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves or particles that release energy when absorbed by an object. See ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, solar radiation, longwave radiation. [3]

Radiative Forcing

	A measure of the influence of a particular factor (e.g. greenhouse gas (GHG), aerosol, or land use change) on the net change in the Earths energy balance.

Recycling

	Collecting and reprocessing a resource so it can be used again. An example is collecting aluminum cans, melting them down, and using the aluminum to make new cans or other aluminum products. [4]

Reflectivity

	The ability of a surface material to reflect sunlight including the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet wavelengths. [14]

Reforestation

	Planting of forests on lands that have previously contained forests but that have been converted to some other use.[1]

Relative Sea Level Rise

	The increase in ocean water levels at a specific location, taking into account both global sea level rise and local factors, such as local subsidence and uplift. Relative sea level rise is measured with respect to a specified vertical datum relative to the land, which may also be changing elevation over time. [10]

Renewable Energy

	Energy resources that are naturally replenishing such as biomass, hydro, geothermal, solar, wind, ocean thermal, wave action, and tidal action. [5]

Residence Time

	The average time spent in a reservoir by an individual atom or molecule. With respect to greenhouse gases, residence time refers to how long on average a particular molecule remains in the atmosphere. For most gases other than methane and carbon dioxide, the residence time is approximately equal to the atmospheric lifetime. [4]

Resilience

	A capability to anticipate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from significant multi-hazard threats with minimum damage to social well-being, the economy, and the environment.

Respiration

	The process whereby living organisms convert organic matter to CO2, releasing energy and consuming O2. [1]

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z - #

S

Salt Water Intrusion

	Displacement of fresh or ground water by the advance of salt water due to its greater density, usually in coastal and estuarine areas. [10]

Scenarios

	A plausible and often simplified description of how the future may develop based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about driving forces and key relationships.

Sea Surface Temperature

	The temperature in the top several feet of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. [13]

Sensitivity

	The degree to which a system is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climate variability or change. The effect may be direct (e.g., a change in crop yield in response to a change in the mean, range or variability of temperature) or indirect (e.g., damages caused by an increase in the frequency of coastal flooding due to sea level rise). [8]

Short Ton

	Common measurement for a ton in the United States. A short ton is equal to 2,000 lbs or 0.907 metric tons. See metric ton.

Sink

	Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or aerosol from the atmosphere. [1]

Snowpack

	A seasonal accumulation of slow-melting snow. [8]

Soil Carbon

	A major component of the terrestrial biosphere pool in the carbon cycle. The amount of carbon in the soil is a function of the historical vegetative cover and productivity, which in turn is dependent in part upon climatic variables. [4]

Solar Radiation

	Radiation emitted by the Sun. It is also referred to as short-wave radiation. Solar radiation has a distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) determined by the temperature of the Sun. See ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, radiation. [1]

Storm Surge

	An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a hurricane or other intense storm, whose height is the difference between the observed level of the sea surface and the level that would have occurred in the absence of the cyclone. [10]

Stratosphere

	Region of the atmosphere between the troposphere and mesosphere, having a lower boundary of approximately 8 km at the poles to 15 km at the equator and an upper boundary of approximately 50 km. Depending upon latitude and season, the temperature in the lower stratosphere can increase, be isothermal, or even decrease with altitude, but the temperature in the upper stratosphere generally increases with height due to absorption of solar radiation by ozone. [3]

Stratospheric Ozone

	See ozone layer.

Streamflow

	The volume of water that moves over a designated point over a fixed period of time. It is often expressed as cubic feet per second (ft3/sec). [6]

Subsiding/Subsidence

	The downward settling of the Earth's crust relative to its surroundings. [10]

Sulfate Aerosols

	Particulate matter that consists of compounds of sulfur formed by the interaction of sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide with other compounds in the atmosphere. Sulfate aerosols are injected into the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels and the eruption of volcanoes like Mt. Pinatubo. Sulfate aerosols can lower the Earth's temperature by reflecting away solar radiation (negative radiative forcing). General Circulation Models which incorporate the effects of sulfate aerosols more accurately predict global temperature variations. See particulate matter, aerosol, General Circulation Models. [3]

Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)

	A colorless gas soluble in alcohol and ether, slightly soluble in water. A very powerful greenhouse gas used primarily in electrical transmission and distribution systems and as a dielectric in electronics. The global warming potential of SF6 is 22,800. This GWP is from the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). See Global Warming Potential. [4]

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z - #

T

Teragram

	1 trillion (1012) grams = 1 million (106) metric tons.

Thermal Expansion

	The increase in volume (and decrease in density) that results from warming water. A warming of the ocean leads to an expansion of the ocean volume, which leads to an increase in sea level. [8]

Thermohaline Circulation

	Large-scale density-driven circulation in the ocean, caused by differences in temperature and salinity. In the North Atlantic the thermohaline circulation consists of warm surface water flowing northward and cold deep water flowing southward, resulting in a net poleward transport of heat. The surface water sinks in highly restricted sinking regions located in high latitudes. [1]

Trace Gas

	Any one of the less common gases found in the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen, and argon make up more than 99 percent of the Earth's atmosphere. Other gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, oxides of nitrogen, ozone, and ammonia, are considered trace gases. Although relatively unimportant in terms of their absolute volume, they have significant effects on the Earth's weather and climate. [3]

Troposphere

	The lowest part of the atmosphere from the surface to about 10 km in altitude in mid-latitudes (ranging from 9 km in high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average) where clouds and "weather" phenomena occur. In the troposphere temperatures generally decrease with height. See ozone precursors, stratosphere, atmosphere. [1]

Tropospheric Ozone (O3)

	See ozone.

Tropospheric Ozone Precursors

	See ozone precursors.

Tundra

	A treeless, level, or gently undulating plain characteristic of the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions characterized by low temperatures and short growing seasons. [8]

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z - #

U

Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)

	The energy range just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. Although ultraviolet radiation constitutes only about 5 percent of the total energy emitted from the sun, it is the major energy source for the stratosphere and mesosphere, playing a dominant role in both energy balance and chemical composition.

	Most ultraviolet radiation is blocked by Earth's atmosphere, but some solar ultraviolet penetrates and aids in plant photosynthesis and helps produce vitamin D in humans. Too much ultraviolet radiation can burn the skin, cause skin cancer and cataracts, and damage vegetation. [3]

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

	The Convention on Climate Change sets an overall framework for intergovernmental efforts to tackle the challenge posed by climate change. It recognizes that the climate system is a shared resource whose stability can be affected by industrial and other emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The Convention enjoys near universal membership, with 189 countries having ratified.

	Under the Convention, governments:

gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices

launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries

cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change

The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994. [4]

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z - #

V

Vulnerability

	The degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed; its sensitivity; and its adaptive capacity. [15]

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z - #

W

Wastewater

	Water that has been used and contains dissolved or suspended waste materials. [4]

Water Vapor

	The most abundant greenhouse gas, it is the water present in the atmosphere in gaseous form. Water vapor is an important part of the natural greenhouse effect. While humans are not significantly increasing its concentration through direct emissions, it contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect because the warming influence of greenhouse gases leads to a positive water vapor feedback. In addition to its role as a natural greenhouse gas, water vapor also affects the temperature of the planet because clouds form when excess water vapor in the atmosphere condenses to form ice and water droplets and precipitation. See greenhouse gas. [3]

Weather

	Atmospheric condition at any given time or place. It is measured in terms of such things as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation. In most places, weather can change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather", or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. A simple way of remembering the difference is that climate is what you expect (e.g. cold winters) and 'weather' is what you get (e.g. a blizzard). See climate.

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z - #

#

100-Year Flood Levels

	Severe flood levels with a one-in-100 likelihood of occurring in any given year.

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1Â Â IPCC Third Assessment Report Working Group I: The Scientific Basis Exit
2Â Â IPCC Third Assessment Report Working Group III: Mitigation Exit
3Â Â NASA's Earth Observatory library
4Â Â UNFCCC glossaries Exit
5Â Â Energy Information Administration's Energy Glossary
6Â Â IPCC Third Assessment Report Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability Exit
7Â Â Energy Information Administration's Energy Efficiency Glossary
8Â Â IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability Exit
9Â Â FEMA Extreme Heat Glossary
10Â Â US Climate Change Science Program. Coastal Sensitivity to Sea Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region
11Â Â National Weather Service Glossary
12Â Â UN LDC criteria ExitÂ
13Â Â IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group 1: The Physical Science Basis Exit
14Â Â EPA Heat Island Effect Glossary
15Â Â US Climate Change Science Program. Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate Sensitive Ecosystems and Resources

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Climate Change

Voluntary Energy and Climate Programs

EPA has developed many programs and projects that partner with industry and others to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. EPA plays a significant role in these partnerships, providing technical expertise and encouraging voluntary reductions from the private sector.

Partnering With Industry

Center for Corporate Climate Leadership

EPA's Center for Corporate Climate Leadership serves as a resource center for all companies looking to expand their work in the area of greenhouse gas measurement and management.

Combined Heat and Power Partnership

The Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Partnership is a voluntary program to reduce the environmental impact of power generation by promoting the use of CHP, which is an efficient, clean and reliable approach to generating power and thermal energy from a single fuel source.

ENERGY STAR®

ENERGY STAR is a joint program of EPA and the U.S. Department of Energy, helping us all save money and protect the environment through energy efficient products and practices.

GreenChill

Greenchill is a voluntary partnership between EPA and the supermarket and refrigeration industry to promote green technologies, strategies, and practices that protect the stratospheric ozone layer, reduce greenhouse gases, and save money.

Green Power Partnership

The Green Power Partnership is a voluntary partnership between EPA and organizations that are interested in using green power, which is electricity produced from a subset of renewable resources, such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydropower.

High Global Warming Potential Gases Voluntary Programs

The high global warming potential partnership programs (or Fluorinated Gas Partnership Programs) are voluntary industry partnerships that are substantially reducing U.S. emissions of potent greenhouse gases.

Voluntary Aluminum Industrial Partnership

The Sulfur Hexafluoride Emissions Reduction Partnership for Electric Power Systems

Methane Reduction Voluntary Programs

EPA's voluntary methane (CH4) partnership programs work with U.S. industries, along with state and local governments, to promote profitable opportunities for reducing emissions of CH4.

AgSTAR

Natural Gas STAR

Global Methane Initiative Exit

Coalbed Methane Outreach Program

Landfill Methane Outreach Program

Transportation and Air Quality Voluntary Programs

Transportation and Air Quality voluntary programs aim to reduce pollution and improve air quality by means of forming partnerships with small and large businesses, citizen groups, industry, manufacturers, trade associations, and state and local governments.

National Clean Diesel Campaign

SmartWay Transport Partnership

Clean School Bus USA

Responsible Appliance Disposal Program

EPA's Responsible Appliance Disposal Program is a voluntary partnership program established to help protect the ozone layer and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases by recovering ozone-depleting chemicals from old refrigerators, freezers, window air conditioners, and dehumidifiers.

WasteWise

WasteWise is a voluntary EPA program through which organizations eliminate costly municipal solid waste and select industrial wastes, benefiting their bottom line and reducing the amount of waste deposited in landfills and greenhouse gas emissions.

WaterSense

WaterSense is an EPA partnership program that seeks to protect the future of our nation's water supply by offering people a simple way to use less water with water-efficient products, new homes, and services--reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in the process.

Partnering With the Public Sector

EPA partners with states, tribes, localities, and resource managers to encourage smart growth, sustainable planning, clean energy, and preparation for climate change.

Creating Resilient Water Utilities

EPA's Creating Resilient Water Utilities (CRWU)  initiative provides drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater utilities with the practical tools, training, and technical assistance needed to increase resilience to extreme weather events. Through a comprehensive planning process, CRWU assists the water sector utilities by promoting a clear understanding of potential long-term adaptation options.

Climate Ready Estuaries

The Climate Ready Estuaries program works with the National Estuary programs to help coastal managers assess climate change vulnerabilities, implement adaptation strategies, educate stakeholders, and share lessons learned.

State and Local Climate and Energy Program

Investing in energy efficiency, renewable energy, and climate change policies and programs is an important way for state and local governments to achieve multiple goals: reducing greenhouse gas emissions, improving air quality and people's health, and saving money. EPA's State and Local Climate and Energy Program offers expertise about energy efficiency, renewable energy, and climate change policies and programs to interested state, local, and tribal governments.

Sustainable Communities

The Partnership for Sustainable Communities, involving the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the Department of Transportation, and EPA, works to create communities that have a variety of housing and transportation choices, with destinations close to home, in order to lower transportation costs, reduce air pollution and stormwater runoff, and provide many other benefits.

The Smart Growth Program has resources to help tribes, states, regions, local governments, and the private sector build in ways that bring multiple environmental, economic, health, and social benefits, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions and preparing for climate change.

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We are already experiencing the effects of climate change. Temperatures are rising, snow and rainfall patterns are shifting, and more extreme climate events—like heavy rainstorms and record high temperatures—are already taking place. These changes are linked to the climbing levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels for energy.

By taking action to reduce emissions of the greenhouse gas pollution that warms our planet, we can reduce the risks we will face from future climate change. EPA, businesses, and individuals all have an important role to play.

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International Climate Partnerships

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text:
#!/usr/bin/env bash

echo "Running Project Level npm"
node_modules/.bin/npm "$@"

repo_name: Blastman/webpack-gradle

repo_language: JavaScript

mime_type: text/plain


text:
@if "%DEBUG%" == "" @echo off
@rem ##########################################################################
@rem
@rem  Gradle startup script for Windows
@rem
@rem ##########################################################################

@rem Set local scope for the variables with windows NT shell
if "%OS%"=="Windows_NT" setlocal

@rem Add default JVM options here. You can also use JAVA_OPTS and GRADLE_OPTS to pass JVM options to this script.
set DEFAULT_JVM_OPTS=

set DIRNAME=%~dp0
if "%DIRNAME%" == "" set DIRNAME=.
set APP_BASE_NAME=%~n0
set APP_HOME=%DIRNAME%

@rem Find java.exe
if defined JAVA_HOME goto findJavaFromJavaHome

set JAVA_EXE=java.exe
%JAVA_EXE% -version >NUL 2>&1
if "%ERRORLEVEL%" == "0" goto init

echo.
echo ERROR: JAVA_HOME is not set and no 'java' command could be found in your PATH.
echo.
echo Please set the JAVA_HOME variable in your environment to match the
echo location of your Java installation.

goto fail

:findJavaFromJavaHome
set JAVA_HOME=%JAVA_HOME:"=%
set JAVA_EXE=%JAVA_HOME%/bin/java.exe

if exist "%JAVA_EXE%" goto init

echo.
echo ERROR: JAVA_HOME is set to an invalid directory: %JAVA_HOME%
echo.
echo Please set the JAVA_HOME variable in your environment to match the
echo location of your Java installation.

goto fail

:init
@rem Get command-line arguments, handling Windowz variants

if not "%OS%" == "Windows_NT" goto win9xME_args
if "%@eval[2+2]" == "4" goto 4NT_args

:win9xME_args
@rem Slurp the command line arguments.
set CMD_LINE_ARGS=
set _SKIP=2

:win9xME_args_slurp
if "x%~1" == "x" goto execute

set CMD_LINE_ARGS=%*
goto execute

:4NT_args
@rem Get arguments from the 4NT Shell from JP Software
set CMD_LINE_ARGS=%$

:execute
@rem Setup the command line

set CLASSPATH=%APP_HOME%\gradle\wrapper\gradle-wrapper.jar

@rem Execute Gradle
"%JAVA_EXE%" %DEFAULT_JVM_OPTS% %JAVA_OPTS% %GRADLE_OPTS% "-Dorg.gradle.appname=%APP_BASE_NAME%" -classpath "%CLASSPATH%" org.gradle.wrapper.GradleWrapperMain %CMD_LINE_ARGS%

:end
@rem End local scope for the variables with windows NT shell
if "%ERRORLEVEL%"=="0" goto mainEnd

:fail
rem Set variable GRADLE_EXIT_CONSOLE if you need the _script_ return code instead of
rem the _cmd.exe /c_ return code!
if  not "" == "%GRADLE_EXIT_CONSOLE%" exit 1
exit /b 1

:mainEnd
if "%OS%"=="Windows_NT" endlocal

:omega


text:
@echo off
echo Running Project Level Node

node_modules/.bin/npm.cmd %*


text:
#!/usr/bin/env bash

# This is a simple helper script used to start the webpack watch process
# so that javascript files can be automatically reloaded when they are saved.
# The version of node must match what's in gradle.

NODE_VERSION="5.8.0"
NODE_LOC="./.gradle/nodejs/node-v${NODE_VERSION}-darwin-x64/bin/node"

chmod u+x ${NODE_LOC}
${NODE_LOC} ./node_modules/.bin/webpack --watch --display-error-details


text:
#!/usr/bin/env bash

##############################################################################
##
##  Gradle start up script for UN*X
##
##############################################################################

# Add default JVM options here. You can also use JAVA_OPTS and GRADLE_OPTS to pass JVM options to this script.
DEFAULT_JVM_OPTS=""

APP_NAME="Gradle"
APP_BASE_NAME=`basename "$0"`

# Use the maximum available, or set MAX_FD != -1 to use that value.
MAX_FD="maximum"

warn ( ) {
    echo "$*"
}

die ( ) {
    echo
    echo "$*"
    echo
    exit 1
}

# OS specific support (must be 'true' or 'false').
cygwin=false
msys=false
darwin=false
case "`uname`" in
  CYGWIN* )
    cygwin=true
    ;;
  Darwin* )
    darwin=true
    ;;
  MINGW* )
    msys=true
    ;;
esac

# Attempt to set APP_HOME
# Resolve links: $0 may be a link
PRG="$0"
# Need this for relative symlinks.
while [ -h "$PRG" ] ; do
    ls=`ls -ld "$PRG"`
    link=`expr "$ls" : '.*-> \(.*\)$'`
    if expr "$link" : '/.*' > /dev/null; then
        PRG="$link"
    else
        PRG=`dirname "$PRG"`"/$link"
    fi
done
SAVED="`pwd`"
cd "`dirname \"$PRG\"`/" >&-
APP_HOME="`pwd -P`"
cd "$SAVED" >&-

CLASSPATH=$APP_HOME/gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.jar

# Determine the Java command to use to start the JVM.
if [ -n "$JAVA_HOME" ] ; then
    if [ -x "$JAVA_HOME/jre/sh/java" ] ; then
        # IBM's JDK on AIX uses strange locations for the executables
        JAVACMD="$JAVA_HOME/jre/sh/java"
    else
        JAVACMD="$JAVA_HOME/bin/java"
    fi
    if [ ! -x "$JAVACMD" ] ; then
        die "ERROR: JAVA_HOME is set to an invalid directory: $JAVA_HOME

Please set the JAVA_HOME variable in your environment to match the
location of your Java installation."
    fi
else
    JAVACMD="java"
    which java >/dev/null 2>&1 || die "ERROR: JAVA_HOME is not set and no 'java' command could be found in your PATH.

Please set the JAVA_HOME variable in your environment to match the
location of your Java installation."
fi

# Increase the maximum file descriptors if we can.
if [ "$cygwin" = "false" -a "$darwin" = "false" ] ; then
    MAX_FD_LIMIT=`ulimit -H -n`
    if [ $? -eq 0 ] ; then
        if [ "$MAX_FD" = "maximum" -o "$MAX_FD" = "max" ] ; then
            MAX_FD="$MAX_FD_LIMIT"
        fi
        ulimit -n $MAX_FD
        if [ $? -ne 0 ] ; then
            warn "Could not set maximum file descriptor limit: $MAX_FD"
        fi
    else
        warn "Could not query maximum file descriptor limit: $MAX_FD_LIMIT"
    fi
fi

# For Darwin, add options to specify how the application appears in the dock
if $darwin; then
    GRADLE_OPTS="$GRADLE_OPTS \"-Xdock:name=$APP_NAME\" \"-Xdock:icon=$APP_HOME/media/gradle.icns\""
fi

# For Cygwin, switch paths to Windows format before running java
if $cygwin ; then
    APP_HOME=`cygpath --path --mixed "$APP_HOME"`
    CLASSPATH=`cygpath --path --mixed "$CLASSPATH"`
    JAVACMD=`cygpath --unix "$JAVACMD"`

    # We build the pattern for arguments to be converted via cygpath
    ROOTDIRSRAW=`find -L / -maxdepth 1 -mindepth 1 -type d 2>/dev/null`
    SEP=""
    for dir in $ROOTDIRSRAW ; do
        ROOTDIRS="$ROOTDIRS$SEP$dir"
        SEP="|"
    done
    OURCYGPATTERN="(^($ROOTDIRS))"
    # Add a user-defined pattern to the cygpath arguments
    if [ "$GRADLE_CYGPATTERN" != "" ] ; then
        OURCYGPATTERN="$OURCYGPATTERN|($GRADLE_CYGPATTERN)"
    fi
    # Now convert the arguments - kludge to limit ourselves to /bin/sh
    i=0
    for arg in "$@" ; do
        CHECK=`echo "$arg"|egrep -c "$OURCYGPATTERN" -`
        CHECK2=`echo "$arg"|egrep -c "^-"`                                 ### Determine if an option

        if [ $CHECK -ne 0 ] && [ $CHECK2 -eq 0 ] ; then                    ### Added a condition
            eval `echo args$i`=`cygpath --path --ignore --mixed "$arg"`
        else
            eval `echo args$i`="\"$arg\""
        fi
        i=$((i+1))
    done
    case $i in
        (0) set -- ;;
        (1) set -- "$args0" ;;
        (2) set -- "$args0" "$args1" ;;
        (3) set -- "$args0" "$args1" "$args2" ;;
        (4) set -- "$args0" "$args1" "$args2" "$args3" ;;
        (5) set -- "$args0" "$args1" "$args2" "$args3" "$args4" ;;
        (6) set -- "$args0" "$args1" "$args2" "$args3" "$args4" "$args5" ;;
        (7) set -- "$args0" "$args1" "$args2" "$args3" "$args4" "$args5" "$args6" ;;
        (8) set -- "$args0" "$args1" "$args2" "$args3" "$args4" "$args5" "$args6" "$args7" ;;
        (9) set -- "$args0" "$args1" "$args2" "$args3" "$args4" "$args5" "$args6" "$args7" "$args8" ;;
    esac
fi

# Split up the JVM_OPTS And GRADLE_OPTS values into an array, following the shell quoting and substitution rules
function splitJvmOpts() {
    JVM_OPTS=("$@")
}
eval splitJvmOpts $DEFAULT_JVM_OPTS $JAVA_OPTS $GRADLE_OPTS
JVM_OPTS[${#JVM_OPTS[*]}]="-Dorg.gradle.appname=$APP_BASE_NAME"

exec "$JAVACMD" "${JVM_OPTS[@]}" -classpath "$CLASSPATH" org.gradle.wrapper.GradleWrapperMain "$@"