In the 1930s, face powder remained a staple cosmetic product and its increased demand raised health concerns about lead based powders that were still in use. [ 23 ]  As a result, the Food, Drugs and Cosmetics Act was passed in 1938 to regulate the ingredients used in cosmetics and ensure they were safe for use. [ 23 ]  Due to  World War Two  rationing in the 1940s, cosmetics were not as widely available, yet a powdered, beautified face remained the desired beauty trend. [ 29 ]  In 1942, the American War Production Board sought to conserve materials by placing restrictions on the production of certain cosmetics. [ 29 ]  Face powder was found to be a heavily used product by women and remained in production during wartime as cosmetics were considered essential products for women's self-expression and autonomy. [ 29 ]  The interwar period in Germany in 1935 also saw that cosmetics were on demand, accounting for 48% of magazine advertising with face powder being a staple item. [ 30 ]


Following the Second World War, rationing in America had ceased and the cosmetic industry flourished. [ 31 ]  With the popularity of female Hollywood stars including  Marilyn Monroe  and  Audrey Hepburn , American television culture influenced the 1950s beauty trend of clear, beautified skin. [ 31 ]   Max Factor , the leading cosmetic brand at the time, introduced the Crème Puff, the first ever multipurpose face powder that offered an all-in-one base, setting and finishing powder. [ 32 ]  The  1970s  that saw a widespread inclusion of diversity with new cosmetic brands offering face powder with darker shades. [ 33 ]  By 1977, cosmetics for black women became a $1.5 billion industry, with darker shades of powders, foundation and lipsticks available in stores around the US. [ 33 ]  By the  1990s , face powder became a staple cosmetic product for not only concealing blemishes but setting makeup in place. [ 34 ]  The Australian Government's National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme was established in 1990 to ensure that industrial chemicals used in face powders and other cosmetics are safe for citizens to use. [ 35 ]


The changing conceptions of  masculinity  during the  2000s  led to evolving beauty trends that saw cosmetic products sold to men including facial scrubs, face powders and eye shadow. [ 36 ]  The use of face makeup has expanded to include males who desire an enhanced look, using face powder to achieve a chiselled complexion. [ 37 ]  As cosmetics in contemporary society are diverse in shade range options, modern face powder enhances natural skin tones and most brands cater for all skin types. 21st century cosmetic trends are heavily influenced by beauty icons and the face powder application technique known as  ‘baking’  has been popularised by socialite  Kim Kardashian West . [ 38 ]   Baking  involves patting translucent face powder under the eyes, the 'T' zone, beneath the cheek bones, along the jawline and on the sides of the nose, allowing it to sit for a few minutes while the foundation is absorbed by the skin's body heat, then brushing it off. [ 39 ]  This technique creates a pore-less and creaseless look that is a desired make-up beauty standard in modern times.


Modern face powders are currently available in different types to serve multiple functions. The six main types of face powder include loose powder, pressed powder, mineral powder, translucent powder, HD powder and finishing powder.


Loose powder can be  translucent  or coloured and is generally packaged in a jar. [ 40 ]  It has a fine consistency with small particles and is used to give light coverage to the skin for a smooth, silky texture. [ 40 ]  Coloured loose powders work to minimise redness by colour-correcting. [ 41 ]  Loose powder is also used to set make-up, meaning it locks in the  foundation  and  concealer  underneath to smoothen out the complexion and limit cracks and lines in the skin. [ 41 ]


Pressed powder is available in different shades and is sold in a  compound container . It is compressed to provide a travel-friendly product for on-the-go touch-ups. [ 42 ]  Pressed powders give coverage to the face, concealing blemishes and discolouration, therefore can be used as a light coverage foundation. [ 43 ]  The particles in pressed powder are larger than those in loose powder and can give off a thick, clotted appearance when overused. [ 41 ]  Pressed powder can also be used for setting makeup.


Mineral powder comes in a loose powder form consisting of  vitamins  and minerals. It contains a mix of  iron ,  zinc  and  titanium dioxides , as well as  talc , providing health benefits to the skin including anti-inflammatory qualities. [ 44 ]  Mineral powders also limit the clogging of pores and are usually fragrance and preservative free. [ 44 ]


Translucent  powder is available in both pressed and loose forms. Its use is to mattify the skin to reduce oiliness and shine. [ 42 ]  It can be used for the  'baking'  application technique, by brightening up certain areas of the face, offering a long-lasting wear. [ 45 ]


High definition powder is mainly used for people featuring in  high-definition film  and  video  to prevent camera flashback, which is the white patches of powdered areas that are highlighted by a camera flash. [ citation needed ]  Available in both pressed and loose forms, HD powder can reduce skin shininess, soften out the skin and mattify it. [ citation needed ]


Finishing powder is mainly used to minimise fine lines and pores. It can even out the skin texture and blur out imperfections, used as a final product to complete makeup. [ 45 ]  It is available in both pressed and loose forms.


Toxic and harmful chemicals are rare in face powders today. [ 46 ]  Modern powders contain ingredients that can conceal blemishes and smoothen out the skin due to their absorbency. [ 47 ]  The most common ingredients used to make face powder include the following.


A  facial  is a family of skin care treatments for the  face , including steam,  exfoliation  (physical and chemical),  extraction , creams, lotions,  facial masks ,  peels , and  massage . They are normally performed in  beauty salons , but are also a common  spa treatment . They are used for general skin health as well as for specific skin conditions. Types of facials include European facial, [ 1 ]  LED  light therapy facials , hydrafacials and mini-facials.


There are different kinds of masks (e.g., clay,  cactus ,  cucumber ) for different purposes: deep-cleansing, by penetrating the  pores ; healing  acne scars  or hyper-pigmentation; brightening, for a gradual illumination of the skin tone. Facial masks also help with anti-aging, acne,  crows feet , under  eye bags , sagging lids, dark circles, puffiness, [ 2 ]  and more. Some masks are designed to dry or solidify on the face, almost like  plaster ; others just remain wet. The green face mask is very essential and benefited.


Masks are removed by either rinsing the face with water, wiping off with a damp cloth, or peeling off of the face. Duration for wearing a mask varies with the type of mask, and manufacturer's usage instructions. The time can range from a few minutes to overnight. Those with  sensitive skin  are advised to first test out the mask on a small portion of the skin, in order to check for any irritations. Some facial masks are not suited to frequent use. A  glycolic  mask should not be used more frequently than once a month to avoid the risk of burning the skin.


Masks can be found anywhere from  drugstores  to department stores and can vary in consistency and form. Setting masks include:  clay , which is a thicker consistency, and will draw out impurities (and sometimes, natural oils, too) from the  pores ; a cream, which stays damp to hydrate the skin; sheet-style, in which a paper mask is dampened with liquid to tone and moisturize the skin; and lastly, a hybrid/clay and cream form that includes small beads for removing dead surface skin cells. Non-setting facial masks include warm oil and  paraffin wax  masks. These different forms are made to suit different skin types (e.g., oily or dry), and different skincare goals or needs (e.g., moisturizing, cleansing, exfoliating).  Clay  and mud masks suit oily and some "combination" skin types, [ 3 ]  while cream-based masks tend to suit dry and sensitive skin types. There are also peel-off masks which are used to remove thin layers of dead skin cells and dirt. [ 4 ]


A  facial mask  is a creamy or thick pasted mask applied to the face for cleansing or skin-smoothing purposes. Facial masks often contain  minerals ,  vitamins , and  fruit extracts , such as  cactus  and  cucumber . A  sheet mask  is a piece of paper,  cellulose  or fabric used to apply a facial mask.


The first facial mask was invented in  Ohio, United States , during the 19th century by Madame Rowley. It was called the "Toilet Mask" or the first "face glove", and was advertised as able to 'bleach, purify and preserve the complexion' of the skin. It was patented in 1875. There are different kinds of masks for different purposes; some are deep cleansing for cleaning the pores. The perceived effect of a facial mask treatment can be revitalizing, rejuvenating or refreshing. Although widely believed to provide tighter pores, increased skin clarity, and a reduction in facial skin wrinkles, masks have not been shown to be any more effective at accomplishing these things than a standard moisturizing lotion. [ 1 ]


Some masks are washed off with tepid water, others are peeled off by hand. Duration for wearing a mask depends on type of mask, but can be three minutes to 30 minutes, and sometimes the whole night.


Honey  is a very popular mask because it smooths skin, and cleans pores. A popular  home remedy [ 2 ]  includes a slice of  cucumber  on the eyes. [ 3 ]  Some also use pickle juice. [ 4 ]


Facial masks should be selected according to  skin type .  Clay  and  mud masks  suit  oily skin ; cream-based masks work best on  dry skin  types. Masks should be used only on cleansed skin for the best results. Firming masks should not be applied on the eye area because they can cause  itching . [ 5 ]


Fraxel Laser Treatment  is a line of lasers developed by Reliant Technologies in 2004. It was developed from a US patent licensed from the Wellman Center for Photomedicine.  R. Rox Anderson  was the inventor. Fraxel lasers cause fractional  photothermolysis  for skin resurfacing.


Complications observed in a study of 961 fractional laser treatments included  acne  and  herpes  outbreaks. [ 1 ]  There have also been anecdotal negative accounts of bad scarring and  hyperpigmentation  following the use of Fraxel lasers. [ 2 ]


Fraxel laser is used primarily to rejuvenate skin. It is used to treat hyperpigmentation, dark spots, and superficial signs of aging such as fine lines and wrinkles, as well as acne scarring. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Several variations of Fraxel lasers exist, each with distinct characteristics. These systems are distinguished by their laser types and the depth of tissue ablation they achieve. [ 3 ]


Galderma SA  is a Swiss pharmaceutical company specializing in  dermatological  treatments and  skin care  products. Formerly a subsidiary of  L'Oréal  and  Nestlé , it has been held by a consortium of private institutional investors since 2019.


Galderma was formed in 1981 as a joint venture between  Nestlé  and  L'Oréal , then it became a subsidiary of Nestlé. [ 2 ]  Since 2019, it belongs to an investment fund. The company, headed by president and CEO  Flemming Ørnskov  (ex-Shire), has 33 sites in 100 countries [ 3 ]  with a worldwide network of distributors and employs more than 4,600 people. The headquarters is based in  Zug , Switzerland.


The origins of Galderma date back to 1961 and the founding of the Owen dermatology company in  Dallas , Texas, USA by M. Owen. [ 4 ]


In 1979, Hans Schaefer founded the International Center for Dermatological Research (CIRD) in  Sophia Antipolis , with the support of the CEO of  L'Oréal ,  François Dalle , who wanted to diversify his cosmetic research into the drug sector. At the same time,  Nestlé , which also had ambitions in dermatology bought the Owen laboratory.


L'Oréal and Nestlé joined forces to create Galderma in 1981 (CIRD became Galderma R&D). It was a joint venture between the two companies. [ 5 ]


Galderma expanded by specializing in the research, development and commercialization of products for  dermatology  (skin care) patients. It reached a significant size, with 38 subsidiaries present in 100 countries in the 2010s. [ 3 ]  It diversified into aesthetic medicine products with the  botulinum toxin  Azzalure, a field in which it strengthened in 2010 with the acquisition of the Swedish medical-device company Q-Med. [ 6 ]


In 2014, Nestlé bought back all the shares from L'Oréal, thus creating a new unit of Nestlé group called Nestle Skin Health. The transaction had a value of €3.1 billion (US$4.23 billion) and was paid for by Nestlé with 21.2 million L'Oréal shares. [ 7 ]  L'Oréal paid €3.4 billion (US$4.63 billion) for the remaining 27.3 million shares. [ 7 ]


In 2019, Nestlé sold Galderma for $10.2 billion [ 8 ] [ 9 ]  to a  consortium  comprising the EQT VIII fund, Luxinva (a wholly owned subsidiary of  Abu Dhabi Investment Authority ), PSP Investments and other institutional investors. Since then, it has been the largest independent dermatology company in the world. [ 10 ]


In November 2021, Galderma bought California-based Alastin, a firm specialising in specialist skincare products, for an undisclosed price. [ 4 ] [ 11 ]


In June 2022, Galderma announced positive results in two Phase III trials for liquid botulinum toxin A, showing RelabotulinumtoxinA was well tolerated. This result primes the company to apply for approval in the US and other global markets. [ 12 ]


Also in June 2022, Galderma announced positive data from Phase III trial, showing efficacy and safety of nemolizumab in patients with  prurigo nodularis . Nemolizumab is a monoclonal antibody that blocks the signaling of IL-31, a neuroimmune cytokine involved in the pathogenesis of prurigo nodularis. [ 13 ] [ 14 ]


On 6 March 2023 Galderma announced its intention to list on the  Swiss stock exchange . [ 15 ]


The  IPO  took place  on March 22, 2024, and was one of the biggest in Europe in 2 years, and the largest in Switzerland since 2017. [ 16 ] [ 17 ]  The price of the stock went up to 62,68  Swiss francs , up from the price of the IPO at 53 francs per share. [ 18 ]   Bloomberg  reports that including debt, Galderma's total market value should come out in the range of $18.69 billion to $19.72 billion. [ 19 ]  The company plans to repay debt with offering proceeds. [ 18 ]


Galderma provides a range of over-the-counter and prescription dermatological products for skin care, aesthetics and treatment of conditions including  acne ,  rosacea ,  psoriasis  and other steroid-responsive  dermatoses  (SRD),  onychomycosis  (fungal nail infections), pigmentary disorders,  skin cancer  and  skin aging . Galderma's activities are divided into three business units: aesthetics, consumer care and prescription medicine. Galderma's products are sold in more than 100 countries. [ citation needed ]


In 2007, Galderma and  Ipsen  signed a licensing agreement for the distribution of the  botulinum toxin  Dysport, known as Azzalure in the  European Union . More than 40 million treatments have been performed in the United States and the European Union. [ 20 ]


The main brands are  Restylane , Azzalure, Dysport, Alluzience, Sculptra and Relfydess (relabotulinumtoxinA), which received a positive decision for use in Australia [ 21 ]  and in the European Union in July 2024. [ 22 ]


Galderma's products are available over-the-counter to consumers. [ citation needed ]


The main consumer care brands are Cetaphil, with its range of  skin care  products for all ages; Benzac and Differin OTC for mild-to-moderate acne; and Loceryl, used to treat fungal nail infections, and Alastin. [ citation needed ]


Disease areas are  atopic dermatitis , dermato- oncology  and  psoriasis . [ citation needed ]


The main brands are  Aklief ,  Benzac ,  Cetaphil ,  Epiduo , Epiduo Forte,  Twyneo , Epsolay, Loceryl, Differin, Soolantra, Mirvaso, Oracea, Metvix and Nemluvio which received US  Food and drug Administration  approval for adult patients living with  prurigo nodularis  in August 2024 [ 23 ]  and for patients with  atopic dermatitis  in December 2024. [ 24 ]


The company invests substantially in  research and development  and sources new treatments from its own activities and from its partnerships with others. [ citation needed ]  It divides its  research and development  departments between six sites:


Galderma has manufacturing facilities at the following locations: [ citation needed ]


Gelatin  or  gelatine  (from  Latin     gelatus  'stiff, frozen') is a translucent, colorless, flavorless food ingredient, commonly derived from  collagen  taken from animal body parts. It is brittle when dry and rubbery when moist. It may also be referred to as  hydrolyzed  collagen, collagen  hydrolysate , gelatine hydrolysate, hydrolyzed gelatine, and collagen  peptides  after it has undergone hydrolysis. It is commonly used as a  gelling agent  in food, beverages,  medications , drug or vitamin  capsules ,  photographic films ,  papers , and  cosmetics .


Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a similar way are called  gelatinous substances . Gelatin is an irreversibly  hydrolyzed  form of collagen, wherein the hydrolysis reduces  protein  fibrils into smaller  peptides ; depending on the physical and chemical methods of denaturation, the molecular weight of the peptides falls within a broad range. Gelatin is present in  gelatin desserts , most  gummy candy  and  marshmallows ,  ice creams ,  dips , and  yogurts . [ 1 ]  Gelatin for cooking comes as powder, granules, and sheets. Instant types can be added to the food as they are; others must soak in water beforehand.


Gelatin is a collection of peptides and  proteins  produced by partial  hydrolysis  of collagen extracted from the skin, bones, and  connective tissues  of animals such as domesticated cattle, chicken, pigs, and fish. During hydrolysis, some of the bonds between and within component proteins are broken. Its chemical composition is, in many aspects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. [ 2 ]  Photographic and pharmaceutical grades of gelatin generally are sourced from cattle bones and pig skin. Gelatin is classified as a  hydrogel .


Gelatin is nearly tasteless and odorless with a colorless or slightly yellow appearance. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  It is transparent and brittle, and it can come as sheets, flakes, or as a powder. [ 3 ]   Polar solvents  like hot water, glycerol, and acetic acid can dissolve gelatin, but it is insoluble in organic solvents like alcohol. [ 3 ]  Gelatin absorbs 5–10 times its weight in water to form a gel. [ 3 ]  The gel formed by gelatin can be melted by reheating, and it has an increasing viscosity under stress ( thixotropic ). [ 3 ]  The upper melting point of gelatin is below  human body temperature , a factor that is important for  mouthfeel  of foods produced with gelatin. [ 5 ]  The  viscosity  of the gelatin-water mixture is greatest when the gelatin concentration is high and the mixture is kept cool at about 4 °C (39 °F). Commercial gelatin will have a gel strength of around 90 to 300 grams Bloom using the  Bloom  test of gel strength. [ 6 ]  Gelatin's strength (but not viscosity) declines if it is subjected to temperatures above 100 °C (212 °F), or if it is held at temperatures near 100 °C for an extended period of time. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


Gelatins have diverse melting points and gelation temperatures, depending on the source. For example, gelatin derived from fish has a lower melting and gelation point than gelatin derived from beef or pork. [ 9 ]


When dry, gelatin consists of 98–99% protein, but it is not a nutritionally complete protein since it is missing  tryptophan  and is deficient in  isoleucine ,  threonine , and  methionine . [ 10 ] [ page needed ]  The  amino acid  content of hydrolyzed collagen is the same as collagen. Hydrolyzed collagen contains 19 amino acids, predominantly  glycine  (Gly) 26–34%,  proline  (Pro) 10–18%, and  hydroxyproline  (Hyp) 7–15%, which together represent around 50% of the total amino acid content. [ 11 ]  Glycine is responsible for close packing of the chains. Presence of proline restricts the conformation. This is important for gelation properties of gelatin. [ 12 ]  Other amino acids that contribute highly include:  alanine  (Ala) 8–11%;  arginine  (Arg) 8–9%;  aspartic acid  (Asp) 6–7%; and  glutamic acid  (Glu) 10–12%. [ 11 ]


In 2011, the  European Food Safety Authority  Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies concluded that "a  cause and effect relationship  has not been established between the consumption of collagen hydrolysate and maintenance of joints". [ 13 ]


Hydrolyzed collagen has been investigated as a type of wound dressing aimed at correcting imbalances in the wound microenvironment and the treatment of refractory wounds (chronic wounds that do not respond to normal treatment), as well as deep second-degree burn wounds. [ 14 ] [ 15 ]


Hydrolyzed collagen, like gelatin, is made from animal  by-products  from the  meat industry  or sometimes animal carcasses removed and cleared by  knackers , including skin, bones, and connective tissue.


In 1997, the U.S.  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA), with support from the TSE ( transmissible spongiform encephalopathy ) Advisory Committee, began monitoring the potential risk of transmitting animal diseases, especially  bovine spongiform encephalopathy  (BSE), commonly known as  mad cow disease . [ 16 ]  An FDA study from that year stated: "... steps such as heat, alkaline treatment, and filtration could be effective in reducing the level of contaminating TSE agents; however, scientific evidence is insufficient at this time to demonstrate that these treatments would effectively remove the BSE infectious agent if present in the source material." [ 17 ]  On 18 March 2016, the FDA finalized three previously issued interim final rules designed to further reduce the potential risk of BSE in human food. [ 18 ]  The final rule clarified that "gelatin is not considered a prohibited cattle material if it is manufactured using the customary industry processes specified." [ 19 ]


The Scientific Steering Committee (SSC) of the  European Union  in 2003 stated that the risk associated with bovine bone gelatin is very low or zero. [ 20 ] [ 21 ]


In 2006, the  European Food Safety Authority  stated that the SSC opinion was confirmed, that the BSE risk of bone-derived gelatin was small, and that it recommended removal of the 2003 request to exclude the skull, brain, and  vertebrae  of bovine origin older than 12 months from the material used in gelatin manufacturing. [ 22 ]


In 2019, the worldwide demand of gelatin was about 620,000  tonnes  (1.4 × 10 ^ 9  lb). [ 23 ]  On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from  by-products  of the  meat  and  leather  industries.
Most gelatin is derived from pork skins, pork and cattle bones, or split cattle hides. [ 24 ]  Gelatin made from fish by-products avoids some of the religious objections to gelatin consumption. [ 5 ]  The raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes that are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate. These processes may take several weeks, and differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the final gelatin products.


Gelatin also can be prepared at home. Boiling certain cartilaginous cuts of meat or bones results in gelatin being dissolved into the water. Depending on the concentration, the resulting stock (when cooled) will form a jelly or gel naturally. This process is used for  aspic .


While many processes exist whereby collagen may be converted to gelatin, they all have several factors in common. The intermolecular and intramolecular bonds that stabilize insoluble collagen must be broken, and also, the hydrogen bonds that stabilize the collagen  helix  must be broken. [ 2 ]  The manufacturing processes of gelatin consists of several main stages:


If the raw material used in the production of the gelatin is derived from  bones , dilute  acid  solutions are used to remove  calcium  and other salts. Hot water or several solvents may be used to reduce the fat content, which should not exceed 1% before the main extraction step. If the raw material consists of  hides  and skin, then size reduction, washing, hair removal, and degreasing are necessary to prepare the materials for the hydrolysis step.


After preparation of the raw material, i.e., removing some of the impurities such as fat and salts, partially purified collagen is converted into gelatin through hydrolysis. Collagen hydrolysis is performed by one of three different methods:  acid -,  alkali -, and  enzymatic hydrolysis . Acid treatment is especially suitable for less fully  cross-linked  materials such as pig skin collagen and normally requires 10 to 48 hours. Alkali treatment is suitable for more complex collagen such as that found in  bovine  hides and requires more time, normally several weeks. The purpose of the alkali treatment is to destroy certain chemical crosslinks still present in collagen. Within the gelatin industry, the gelatin obtained from acid-treated raw material has been called type-A gelatin and the gelatin obtained from alkali-treated raw material is referred to as type-B gelatin. [ 25 ]


Advances are occurring to optimize the yield of gelatin using enzymatic hydrolysis of collagen. The treatment time is shorter than that required for alkali treatment, and results in almost complete conversion to the pure product. The physical properties of the final gelatin product are considered better. [ 26 ]


Extraction is performed with either water or acid solutions at appropriate temperatures. All industrial processes are based on neutral or acid pH values because although alkali treatments speed up conversion, they also promote degradation processes. Acidic extraction conditions are extensively used in the industry, but the degree of acid varies with different processes. This extraction step is a multistage process, and the extraction temperature usually is increased in later extraction steps, which ensures minimum thermal degradation of the extracted gelatin.


This process includes several steps such as filtration, evaporation, drying, grinding, and sifting. These operations are concentration-dependent and also dependent on the particular gelatin used. Gelatin degradation should be avoided and minimized, so the lowest temperature possible is used for the recovery process. Most recoveries are rapid, with all of the processes being done in several stages to avoid extensive deterioration of the peptide structure. A deteriorated peptide structure would result in a low gel strength, which is not generally desired.


The 10th-century  Kitab al-Tabikh  includes a recipe for a fish aspic, made by boiling fish heads. [ 27 ] [ page needed ]


A recipe for jelled meat broth is found in  Le Viandier , written in or around 1375. [ 28 ]


In 15th century Britain, cattle hooves were boiled to produce a gel. [ 29 ]  By the late 17th century, the French inventor  Denis Papin  had discovered another method of gelatin extraction via boiling of bones. [ 30 ]  An English patent for gelatin production was granted in 1754. [ 29 ]  In 1812, the chemist  Jean-Pierre-Joseph d'Arcet  [ fr ]  further experimented with the use of  hydrochloric acid  to extract gelatin from bones, and later with steam extraction, which was much more efficient. The French government viewed gelatin as a potential source of cheap, accessible protein for the poor, particularly in Paris. [ 31 ]


Food applications in France and the United States during the 19th century appear to have established the versatility of gelatin, including the origin of its popularity in the US as  Jell-O . [ 32 ]  In the mid-19th century, the American industrialist and inventor,  Peter Cooper , registered a patent for a gelatin dessert powder he called "Portable Gelatin", which only needed the addition of water. In the late 19th century, Charles and  Rose Knox  set up the Charles B. Knox Gelatin Company in New York, which promoted and popularized the use of gelatin. [ 33 ]


Probably best known as a  gelling agent  in  cooking , different types and grades of gelatin are used in a wide range of food and nonfood products. Common examples of foods that contain gelatin are  gelatin desserts ,  trifles ,  aspic ,  marshmallows ,  candy corn , and confections such as  Peeps ,  gummy bears ,  fruit snacks , and  jelly babies . [ 34 ]  Gelatin may be used as a  stabilizer , thickener, or texturizer in foods such as yogurt,  cream cheese , and  margarine ; it is used, as well, in fat-reduced foods to simulate the  mouthfeel  of fat and to create volume. It also is used in the production of several types of Chinese soup dumplings, specifically Shanghainese soup dumplings, or  xiaolongbao , as well as  Shengjian mantou , a type of fried and steamed dumpling. The fillings of both are made by combining ground pork with gelatin cubes, and in the process of cooking, the gelatin melts, creating a soupy interior with a characteristic gelatinous stickiness.


Gelatin is used for the clarification of juices, such as apple juice, and of vinegar. [ 35 ]


Isinglass  is obtained from the swim bladders of fish. It is used as a fining agent for wine and beer. [ 36 ]  Besides  hartshorn  jelly, from deer antlers (hence the name "hartshorn"), isinglass was one of the oldest sources of gelatin.


In cosmetics, hydrolyzed collagen may be found in topical creams, acting as a product texture conditioner, and moisturizer. Collagen implants or dermal fillers are also used to address the appearance of wrinkles, contour deficiencies, and acne scars, among others. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved its use, and identifies cow (bovine) and human cells as the sources of these fillers. According to the FDA, the desired effects can last for 3–4 months, which is relatively the most short-lived compared to other materials used for the same purpose. [ 37 ]


The consumption of gelatin from particular animals may be forbidden by religious rules or cultural taboos.


Islamic  halal  and Jewish  kosher  customs generally require gelatin from sources other than pigs, such as cattle that have been slaughtered according to religious regulations (halal or kosher), or fish (that Jews and Muslims are allowed to consume). [ 45 ]


On the other hand, some  Islamic  jurists have argued that the chemical treatment "purifies" the gelatin enough to always be halal, an argument most common in the field of medicine. [ 45 ]


It has similarly been argued that gelatin in medicine is permissible in Judaism, as it is not used as food. [ 46 ]  According to  The  Jewish  Dietary Laws , the book of kosher guidelines published by the  Rabbinical Assembly , the organization of  Conservative Jewish  rabbis, all gelatin is kosher and  pareve  because the chemical transformation undergone in the manufacturing process renders it a different physical and chemical substance. [ 47 ]


Buddhist ,  Hindu , and  Jain  customs may require gelatin alternatives from sources other than animals, as many Hindus, almost all Jains and some Buddhists are vegetarian. [ 48 ]


Media related to  Gelatin  at Wikimedia Commons


Hand sanitizer  (also known as  hand antiseptic ,  hand disinfectant ,  hand rub , or  handrub ) is a liquid, gel, or foam used to kill  viruses ,  bacteria , and other  microorganisms  on the hands. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  It can also come in the form of a cream, spray, or wipe. [ 5 ]  While  hand washing  with soap and water is generally preferred, [ 6 ]  hand sanitizer is a convenient alternative in settings where soap and water are unavailable. However, it is less effective against certain pathogens like  norovirus  and  Clostridioides difficile  and cannot physically remove harmful chemicals. [ 6 ]  Improper use, such as wiping off sanitizer before it dries, can also reduce its effectiveness, and some sanitizers with low alcohol concentrations are less effective. [ 6 ]  Additionally, frequent use of hand sanitizer may disrupt the skin's microbiome and cause dermatitis. [ 7 ]


Alcohol -based hand sanitizers, which contain at least 60% alcohol ( ethanol  or isopropyl alcohol), are recommended by the United States  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention  (CDC) when soap and water are not available. [ 8 ]  In healthcare settings, these sanitizers are often preferred over hand washing with soap and water because they are more effective at reducing bacteria and are better tolerated by the skin. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]  However, hand washing should still be performed if contamination is visible or after using the toilet. [ 11 ]  Non-alcohol-based hand sanitizers, which may contain  benzalkonium chloride  or  triclosan , are less effective and generally not recommended, [ 9 ]  though they are not flammable. [ 5 ]


The formulation of alcohol-based hand sanitizers typically includes a combination of isopropyl alcohol, ethanol, or  n -propanol, with alcohol concentrations ranging from 60% to 95% being the most effective. [ 4 ]  These sanitizers are flammable [ 9 ]  and work against a wide variety of microorganisms, but not spores. [ 4 ]  To prevent skin dryness, compounds such as glycerol may be added, and some formulations include fragrances, though these are discouraged due to the risk of allergic reactions. [ 12 ]  Non-alcohol-based versions are less effective and should be used with caution. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ]


The use of alcohol as an antiseptic dates back to at least 1363, with evidence supporting its use emerging in the late 1800s. [ 16 ]  Alcohol-based hand sanitizers became commonly used in Europe by the 1980s [ 17 ]  and have since been included on the  World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines . [ 18 ] [ 19 ]


Alcohol-based hand sanitizers may not be effective if the hands are greasy or visibly soiled. In hospitals, the hands of healthcare workers are often contaminated with pathogens, but rarely soiled or greasy.


Some commercially available hand sanitizers (and online recipes for homemade rubs) have alcohol concentrations that are too low. [ 20 ]  This makes them less effective at killing germs. [ 6 ]  Poorer people in developed countries [ 20 ]  and people in developing countries may find it harder to get a hand sanitizer with an effective alcohol concentration. [ 21 ]  Fraudulent labelling of alcohol concentrations has been a problem in Guyana. [ 22 ]


The current evidence that the effectiveness of school hand hygiene interventions is of poor quality. [ 23 ]


In a 2020 Cochrane review comparing rinse-free hand washing to conventional soap and water techniques and the subsequent impact on school absenteeism found a small but beneficial effect on rinse-free hand washing on illness related absenteeism. [ 24 ]


Hand sanitizers were first introduced in 1966 in medical settings such as hospitals and healthcare facilities. The product was popularized in the early 1990s. [ 25 ]


Alcohol-based hand sanitizer is more convenient compared to  hand washing  with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. [ 9 ]  Among healthcare workers, it is generally more effective for hand  antisepsis , and better tolerated than soap and water. [ 4 ]  Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the  toilet . [ 11 ]


Hand sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol or contains a "persistent antiseptic" should be used. [ 26 ] [ 27 ]  Alcohol rubs kill many different kinds of bacteria, including  antibiotic resistant  bacteria and  TB  bacteria. They also kill many kinds of viruses, including the  flu virus , the common  cold virus ,  coronaviruses , and  HIV . [ 28 ] [ 29 ]


90% alcohol rubs are more effective against  viruses  than most other forms of hand washing. [ 30 ]  Isopropyl alcohol will kill 99.99% or more of all non-spore forming bacteria in less than 30 seconds, both in the laboratory and on human skin. [ 26 ] [ 31 ]


In too low quantities (0.3 ml) or concentrations (below 60%), the alcohol in hand sanitizers may not have the 10–15 seconds exposure time required to denature proteins and  lyse  cells. [ 4 ]  In environments with high lipids or protein waste (such as food processing), the use of alcohol hand rubs alone may not be sufficient to ensure proper hand hygiene. [ 4 ]


For health care settings, like hospitals and clinics, optimum alcohol concentration to kill bacteria is 70% to 95%. [ 32 ] [ 33 ]  Products with alcohol concentrations as low as 40% are available in American stores, according to researchers at  East Tennessee State University . [ 34 ]


Alcohol rub sanitizers kill most bacteria, and fungi, and stop some viruses.  Alcohol rub sanitizers containing at least 70% alcohol (mainly  ethyl alcohol ) kill 99.9% of the bacteria on hands 30 seconds after application and 99.99% to 99.999% [ note 1 ]  in one minute. [ 30 ]


For health care, optimal disinfection requires attention to all exposed surfaces such as around the fingernails, between the fingers, on the back of the thumb, and around the wrist.  Hand alcohol should be thoroughly rubbed into the hands and on the lower  forearm  for a duration of at least 30 seconds and then allowed to air dry. [ 35 ]


Use of alcohol-based hand gels dries skin less, leaving more moisture in the  epidermis , than hand washing with antiseptic/antimicrobial  soap  and  water . [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] [ 39 ]


Hand sanitizers containing a minimum of 60 to 95% alcohol are efficient germ killers. Alcohol rub sanitizers kill bacteria, multi-drug resistant bacteria ( MRSA  and  VRE ),  tuberculosis , and some viruses (including  HIV ,  herpes ,  RSV ,  rhinovirus ,  vaccinia ,  influenza , [ 40 ]  and  hepatitis ) and  fungi . Alcohol rub sanitizers containing 70% alcohol kill 99.97% (3.5  log reduction , similar to 35  decibel  reduction) of the bacteria on hands 30 seconds after application and 99.99% to 99.999% (4 to 5 log reduction) of the bacteria on hands 1 minute after application. [ 30 ]


There are certain situations during which  hand washing  with soap and water are preferred over hand sanitizer, these include: eliminating bacterial spores of  Clostridioides difficile , parasites such as  Cryptosporidium , and certain viruses like  norovirus  depending on the concentration of alcohol in the sanitizer (95% alcohol was seen to be most effective in eliminating most viruses). [ 41 ]  In addition, if hands are contaminated with fluids or other visible contaminates, hand washing is preferred as well as after using the toilet and if discomfort develops from the residue of alcohol sanitizer use. [ 42 ]   Furthermore, CDC states hand sanitizers are not effective in removing chemicals such as pesticides. [ 43 ]


Alcohol gel can catch fire, producing a translucent blue flame.  This is due to the  flammable  alcohol in the gel.  Some hand sanitizer gels may not produce this effect due to a high concentration of water or moisturizing agents. There have been some rare instances where alcohol has been implicated in starting fires in the operating room, including a case where alcohol used as an antiseptic pooled under the surgical drapes in an operating room and caused a fire when a cautery instrument was used. Alcohol gel was not implicated. [ citation needed ]


To minimize the risk of fire, alcohol rub users are instructed to rub their hands until dry, which indicates that the flammable alcohol has evaporated. [ 44 ]  Igniting alcohol hand rub while using it is rare, but the need for this is underlined by one case of a health care worker using hand rub, removing a polyester isolation gown, and then touching a metal door while her hands were still wet; static electricity produced an audible spark and ignited the hand gel. [ 4 ] : 13   Hand sanitizer should be stored in temperatures below 105 °F and should not be left in a car during hot weather due to risk of flammability. [ 45 ]  Fire departments suggest refills for the alcohol-based hand sanitizers can be stored with cleaning supplies away from heat sources or open flames. [ 46 ] [ 47 ]


Researchers have not thoroughly studied the implications of hand sanitizer use for the body and the microbiome. [ 7 ]  Studies of healthcare workers have correlated high rates of hand eczema with hand sanitizer use. [ 48 ] [ 49 ]


The alcohol in hand sanitizer strips the skin of the outer layer of oil, which may have negative effects on barrier function of the skin. A study also shows that disinfecting hands with an antimicrobial detergent results in a greater barrier disruption of skin compared to alcohol solutions, suggesting an increased loss of skin lipids. [ 50 ] [ 51 ]


Frequent use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers can cause  dry skin  unless  emollients  and/or skin moisturizers are added to the formula. The drying effect of alcohol can be reduced or eliminated by adding  glycerin  and/or other emollients to the formula. [ 52 ]  In  clinical trials , alcohol-based hand sanitizers containing emollients caused substantially less skin  irritation  and dryness than soaps or antimicrobial detergents.  Allergic contact dermatitis , contact  urticaria  syndrome or  hypersensitivity  to alcohol or additives present in alcohol hand rubs rarely occur. [ 31 ]  The lower tendency to induce  irritant contact dermatitis  became an attraction as compared to soap and water hand washing.


In the United States, the  U.S. Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) controls antimicrobial handsoaps and sanitizers as  over-the-counter drugs  (OTC) because they are intended for topical anti-microbial use to prevent disease in humans. [ 53 ]


The FDA requires strict labeling which informs consumers on proper use of this OTC drug and dangers to avoid, including warning adults not to ingest, not to use in the eyes, to keep out of the reach of children, and to allow use by children only under adult supervision. [ 54 ]  According to the  American Association of Poison Control Centers , there were nearly 12,000 cases of hand sanitizer ingestion in 2006. [ 55 ]  If ingested, alcohol-based hand sanitizers can cause  alcohol poisoning  in small children. [ 56 ]  However, the U.S.  Centers for Disease Control  recommends using hand sanitizer with children to promote good hygiene, under supervision, and furthermore recommends parents pack hand sanitizer for their children when traveling, to avoid their contracting disease from dirty hands. [ 57 ]


Denaturants are an ingredient added to hand sanitizers, such as Purell, that is used to stop the liquid gel from being digested. This chemical adds a taste to the gel that makes it less enticing to consume. It is especially helpful in keeping younger children away because of the different smells and colors of hand sanitizers that tend to attract children. [ 58 ] [ 59 ]


People with  alcoholism  may attempt to consume hand sanitizer in desperation when traditional alcoholic beverages are unavailable, or personal access to them is restricted by force or law. There have been reported incidents of people  drinking the gel  in prisons and hospitals to become intoxicated. As a result, access to sanitizing liquids and gels is controlled and restricted in some facilities. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] [ 62 ]  For example, over a period of several weeks during the  COVID-19 pandemic in New Mexico , seven people in that U.S. state who were alcoholic were severely injured by drinking sanitizer: three died, three were in critical condition, and one was left permanently blind. [ 63 ] [ 64 ]


In 2021, a dozen children were hospitalized in the state of Maharashtra, India, after they were mistakenly orally administered hand sanitizer instead of a polio vaccine. [ 65 ]


On 30 April 2015, the FDA announced that they were requesting more scientific data based on the safety of hand sanitizer. Emerging science suggests that for at least some health care antiseptic active ingredients, systemic exposure (full body exposure as shown by detection of antiseptic ingredients in the blood or urine) is higher than previously thought, and existing data raise potential concerns about the effects of repeated daily human exposure to some antiseptic active ingredients. This would include hand antiseptic products containing alcohol and  triclosan . [ 66 ]


Hands must be disinfected before any surgical procedure by hand washing with mild soap and then hand-rubbing with a sanitizer. Surgical disinfection requires a larger dose of the hand-rub and a longer rubbing time than is ordinarily used.  It is usually done in two applications according to specific hand-rubbing techniques, EN1499 (hygienic handwash), and German standard DIN EN 1500 (hygienic hand disinfection) to ensure that antiseptic is applied everywhere on the surface of the hand. [ 67 ]


Some hand sanitizer products use agents other than alcohol to kill microorganisms, such as  povidone-iodine ,  benzalkonium chloride  or  triclosan . [ 4 ]  The World Health Organization (WHO) and the CDC recommends "persistent" antiseptics for hand sanitizers. [ 68 ]  Persistent activity is defined as the prolonged or extended antimicrobial activity that prevents or inhibits the proliferation or survival of microorganisms after application of the product. This activity may be demonstrated by sampling a site several minutes or hours after application and demonstrating bacterial antimicrobial effectiveness when compared with a baseline level. This property also has been referred to as "residual activity." Both substantive and nonsubstantive active ingredients can show a persistent effect if they substantially lower the number of bacteria during the wash period.


Laboratory studies have shown lingering benzalkonium chloride may be associated with  antibiotic  resistance in  MRSA . [ 69 ] [ 70 ]  Tolerance to alcohol sanitizers may develop in fecal bacteria. [ 71 ] [ 72 ]  Where alcohol sanitizers utilize 62%, or higher, alcohol by weight, only 0.1 to 0.13% of benzalkonium chloride by weight provides equivalent antimicrobial effectiveness.


Triclosan has been shown to accumulate in  biosolids  in the environment, one of the top seven organic contaminants in waste water according to the  National Toxicology Program [ 73 ]  Triclosan leads to various problems with natural biological systems, [ 74 ]  and triclosan, when combined with chlorine e.g. from tap water, produces  dioxins , a probable  carcinogen  in humans. [ 75 ]  However, 90–98% of triclosan in waste water biodegrades by both photolytic or natural biological processes or is removed due to  sorption  in waste water treatment plants. Numerous studies show that only very small traces are detectable in the effluent water that reaches rivers. [ 76 ]


A series of studies show that  photodegradation  of triclosan produced  2,4-dichlorophenol  and 2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,8-DCDD). The 2,4-dichlorophenol itself is known to be biodegradable as well as photodegradable. [ 77 ]  For DCDD, one of the non-toxic compounds of the dioxin family, [ 78 ]  a conversion rate of 1% has been reported and estimated half-lives suggest that it is photolabile as well. [ 79 ]  The formation-decay kinetics of DCDD are also reported by Sanchez-Prado et al. (2006) who claim "transformation of triclosan to toxic dioxins has never been shown and is highly unlikely." [ 80 ]


Alcohol-free hand sanitizers may be effective immediately while on the skin, but the solutions themselves can become contaminated because alcohol is an in-solution preservative and without it, the alcohol-free solution itself is susceptible to contamination. However, even alcohol-containing hand sanitizers can become contaminated if the alcohol content is not properly controlled or the sanitizer is grossly contaminated with microorganisms during manufacture. In June 2009, alcohol-free Clarcon Antimicrobial Hand Sanitizer was pulled from the US market by the FDA, which found the product contained gross contamination of extremely high levels of various bacteria, including those which can "cause opportunistic infections of the skin and underlying tissues and could result in medical or surgical attention as well as permanent damage".  Gross contamination of any hand sanitizer by bacteria during manufacture will result in the failure of the effectiveness of that sanitizer and possible infection of the treatment site with the contaminating organisms. [ 81 ]


Alcohol-based hand rubs are extensively used in the hospital environment as an alternative to antiseptic soaps. Hand-rubs in the hospital environment have two applications: hygienic hand rubbing and surgical hand disinfection. Alcohol based hand rubs provide a better skin tolerance as compared to antiseptic soap. [ 39 ]
Hand rubs also prove to have more effective microbiological properties as compared to antiseptic soaps.


The same ingredients used in over-the-counter hand-rubs are also used in hospital hand-rubs: alcohols such as  ethanol  and  isopropanol , sometimes combined with  quaternary ammonium cations  (quats) such as  benzalkonium chloride .  Quats are added at levels up to 200 parts per million to increase antimicrobial effectiveness. Although allergy to alcohol-only rubs is rare, fragrances, preservatives and quats can cause contact allergies. [ 82 ]   These other ingredients do not evaporate like alcohol and accumulate leaving a "sticky" residue until they are removed with soap and water.


The most common brands of alcohol hand rubs include Aniosgel, Avant, Sterillium, Desderman and Allsept S. All hospital hand rubs must conform to certain regulations like EN 12054 for hygienic treatment and surgical disinfection by hand-rubbing. Products with a claim of "99.99% reduction" or 4- log reduction  are ineffective in hospital environment, since the reduction must be more than "99.99%". [ 30 ]


The hand sanitizer dosing systems for hospitals are designed to deliver a measured amount of the product for staff.  They are dosing pumps screwed onto a bottle or are specially designed dispensers with refill bottles. Dispensers for surgical hand disinfection are usually equipped with elbow controlled mechanism or infrared sensors to avoid any contact with the pump.


Consumer alcohol-based hand sanitizers, and  health care  "hand alcohol" or "alcohol hand antiseptic agents" exist in liquid, foam, and easy-flowing gel formulations. Products with 60% to 95%  alcohol by volume  are effective antiseptics. Lower or higher concentrations are less effective; most products contain between 60% and 80% alcohol. [ 83 ]


In addition to alcohol ( ethanol ,  isopropanol  or  n-Propanol ), hand sanitizers also contain the following: [ 83 ]


The  World Health Organization  has published the following formulations to guide to the production of large quantities of hand sanitizer from chemicals available in developing countries, where commercial hand sanitizer may not be available: [ 2 ]


In 2010 the  World Health Organization  produced a guide for manufacturing hand sanitizer, which received renewed interest in 2020 because of shortages of hand sanitizer in the wake of the  COVID-19 pandemic . [ 2 ]   Dozens of liquor and perfume manufacturers switched their manufacturing facilities from their normal product to hand sanitizer. [ 84 ]  In order to keep up with the demand, local  distilleries  started using their alcohol to make hand sanitizer. [ 85 ]  Distilleries producing hand sanitizer originally existed in a legal grey area in the United States, until the  Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau  declared that distilleries could produce their sanitizer without authorization. [ 86 ] [ 87 ]


In the beginnings of the pandemic, because of hand sanitizer shortages due to  panic buying , people resorted to using 60% to 99% concentrations of isopropyl or ethyl alcohol for hand sanitization, typically mixing them with  glycerol  or soothing  moisturizers  or liquid contain  aloe vera  to counteract  irritations  with options of adding drops of  lemon  or  lime  juice or  essential oils  for scents, and thus making  DIY  hand sanitizers. [ 88 ]  However, there are cautions against making them, such as a wrong measurement or ingredient may resulting in an insufficient amount of alcohol to kill the coronavirus, thus rendering the mixture  ineffective or even poisonous . [ 89 ]


Additionally, some commercial products are dangerous, either due to poor oversight and process control, or fraudulent motive. In June 2020, the FDA issued an advisory against use of hand sanitizer products manufacture by Eskbiochem SA de CV in Mexico due to excessive levels of  methanol  – up to 81% in one product. Methanol can be absorbed through the skin, is toxic in modest amounts, and in substantial exposure can result in "nausea, vomiting, headache, blurred vision, permanent blindness, seizures, coma, permanent damage to the nervous system or death". [ 90 ]  Products suspected of manufacture by Eskbiochem SA with excessive methanol have been reported as far away as  British Columbia , Canada. [ 91 ]


In August 2020, the FDA expanded the list of dangerous hand sanitizers. [ 92 ] [ 93 ]


Hinokitiol  ( β-thujaplicin ) is a natural  monoterpenoid  found in the wood of trees in the family  Cupressaceae . It is a  tropolone  derivative and one of the  thujaplicins . [ 3 ]  Hinokitiol is used in oral and skin care products, [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  and is a  food additive  used in  Japan . [ 6 ]


Hinokitiol was discovered by a Japanese chemist  Tetsuo Nozoe  in 1936. It was isolated from the  essential oil  component of the  heartwood  of  Taiwanese hinoki , from which the compound ultimately adopted its name. [ 7 ]  Hinokitiol is the first non- benzenoid  aromatic compound identified. [ 8 ]  The compound has a heptagonal molecular structure and was first synthesized by  Ralph Raphael  in 1951. [ 9 ]  Due to its iron-chelating activity, hinokitiol has been called an "Iron Man molecule" in the scientific media, which is ironic because Tetsuo is translated into English as "Iron Man". [ 10 ]  Taiwanese hinoki is native to  East Asian  countries, particularly to  Japan  and  Taiwan . [ 11 ]  Hinokitiol has also been found in other trees of the  Cupressaceae  family, including  Thuja plicata  Donn ex D. Don  which is common in the  Pacific Northwest .


Woods that are rich in hinokitiol were used by people of ancient  Japan  for creating long-standing buildings, such as the  Konjiki-dō , a japanese national treasure, one of the buildings of  Chūson-ji  complex, a temple in  Iwate Prefecture . It kept it from harm against  insects ,  wood-rotting fungi , and  molds  for a long time of about 840 years. Additionally, there are some old famous Buddhist temples and  Shinto shrines  using trees, later known to contain hinokitiol. [ 12 ]  Beginning in the 2000s, the biological properties of hinokitiol have become of research interest, focusing on its biological properties. [ 10 ]  And the resistance of  cypress  trees to  wood decay  was the leading reason prompting to study their chemical content and to find the substances responsible for those properties. [ 13 ]


Hinokitiol has been found in the heartwood of the conifer trees of the  Cupressaceae  family, including  Chamaecyparis obtusa  (Hinoki cypress),  Thuja plicata  (Western red cedar),  Thujopsis dolabrata  var.  hondai  (Hinoki asunaro),  Juniperus cedrus  (Canary Islands juniper),  Cedrus atlantica  (Atlas cedar),  Cupressus lusitanica  (Mexican white cedar),  Chamaecyparis lawsoniana  (Port Orford cedar),  Chamaecyparis taiwanensis  (Taiwan cypress),  Chamaecyparis thyoides  (Atlantic white cedar),  Cupressus arizonica  (Arizona cypress),  Cupressus macnabiana  (MacNab cypress),  Cupressus macrocarpa  (Monterey cypress),  Juniperus chinensis  (Chinese juniper),  Juniperus communis  (Common juniper),  Juniperus californica  (California juniper),  Juniperus occidentalis  (Western juniper),  Juniperus oxycedrus  (Cade),  Juniperus sabina  (Savin juniper),  Calocedrus decurrens  (California incense-cedar),  Calocedrus formosana  (Taiwan incense-cedar),  Platycladus orientalis  (Chinese thuja),  Thuja occidentalis  (Northern white-cedar),  Thuja standishii  (Japanese thuja),  Tetraclinis articulata  (Sandarac). [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ]


Its concentration in the trees are 0.1-0.2% in  Chamaecyparis taiwanensis  (2 mg of hinokitiol per 1 g of dry sawdust), 0.04% in  Juniperus cedrus  and  Thujopsis dolabrata  var.  hondai  (0.4 mg of hinokitiol per 1 g of dry sawdust), and 0.02% in  Chamaecyparis obtusa  (0.2 mg of hinokitiol per 1 g of dry sawdust). [ 7 ] [ 18 ]


There are three naturally found  thujaplicins : α-thujaplicin, β-thujaplicin (hinokitiol) and γ-thujaplicin. Hinokitiol is the most common isomer and it appears to be the only isomer that exerts all biological activities attributed to thujaplicins. [ 19 ] [ 20 ]


There are different pathways to synthesize thujaplicins. Hinokitiol, as other thujaplicins, can be synthesized by  cycloaddition  of isopropyl cyclopentadiene  and dichloro ketene,  1,3-dipolar cycloaddition  of 5-isopropyl-1-methyl-3-oxidopyridinium,  ring expansion  of 2-isopropylcyclohexanone, regiocontrolled  hydroxylation  of oxyallyl  (4+3) cycloadducts ,  regioselectively  from ( R )-(+)- limonene , and from troponeirontricarbonyl complex. [ 21 ] [ 22 ]  Hinokitiol can also be isolated through  plant cell suspension cultures , [ 23 ] [ 24 ]  or readily extracted from the wood with chemical  solvents  and  ultrasonication . [ 25 ]


(1) Synthesis of hinokitiol from troponeirontricarbonyl complex:


(2) Synthesis of hinokitiol by electro-reductive alkylation of substituted cycloheptatrienes:


(3) Synthesis of hinokitiol through ring expansion of 2-isopropylcyclohexanone:


(4) Synthesis of hinokitiol through oxyallyl cation [4+3] cyclization (Noyori's synthesis):


Hinokitiol is a  tropolone  derivative containing an unsaturated seven-membered carbon ring. It is a  monoterpenoid  –  cyclohepta-2,4,6-trien-1-one  substituted by a  hydroxy group  at position 2 and an  isopropyl group  at position 4. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ]  It is a  enol  and a cyclic  ketone . It derives from a hydride of a  cyclohepta-1,3,5-triene . Thujaplicins are soluble in organic solvents and aqueous buffers. [ 2 ]  Hinokitiol provides acetone on vigorous oxidation and gives the saturated monocyclic diol upon catalytic hydrogenation. [ 7 ]  It is stable to alkali and acids, forming salts or remaining unchanged, but does not convert to catechol derivatives.
Hinokitiol, as other thujaplicins and tropolones, reversibly binds metal ions. It forms complex salts with metal ions.


Hinokitiol, as other  tropolones , reversibly binds metal ions (i.e.  Zn 2+ ,  Fe 2+ ,  Cu 2+ ,  Co 2+ ,  Mn 2+ ,  Ag 2+ ) and form complex  salts . It is considered as a broad-spectrum  metallophore , and an efficient  iron - chelating agent . [ 17 ]  The iron complex with hinokitiol with the formula (C 10 H 11 O 2 ) 3 Fe is called hinokitin.  Hinoki  oil is rich in hinokitin which has an appearance of dark red crystals. [ 7 ]  The complexes made of iron and tropolones display high thermodynamic stability and has shown to have a stronger binding constant than the transferrin-iron complex. [ 29 ]  It is believed that metal-binding activity may be the principal mechanism of action underlying the most part of its biological activities, especially binding iron, zinc, and copper ions. [ 20 ]  By binding different metal ions and serving as an  ionophore , it accelerates the intracellular uptake of those ions and increases their intracellular levels, thus influencing on different biological activities. It is shown that a synergistic effect in some biological activities and settings may occur when ionophores are combined with the ions they bind. [ 30 ]  As an ionophore, its molecule has an hydrophilic center and a hydrophobic part. The hydrophobic part interacts with biological membranes. The hydrophilic center binds metal ions and form ionophore-ion complexes.


Hinokitiol and other  thujaplicins  have been mainly investigated in  in-vitro  studies and animal models for their possible biological properties, such as antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, antiplasmodial effects. [ 10 ] [ 17 ] [ 20 ]  However, no evidence exists from clinical studies to support these findings. It has also shown to have insecticidal, pesticidal and antibrowning effects. The vast majority of these properties are thought to be due to the metal ion-binding activity. Hinokitiol appeared to exert all  in-vitro  activities attributed to thujaplicins. [ 20 ]


Hinokitiol has been shown to possess inhibitory effects on  Chlamydia trachomatis  and may be clinically useful as a topical drug. [ 31 ] [ 10 ]


The safety of hinokitiol has been tested in rats and no carcinogenic effect to rats was found. [ 32 ]  In 2006, hinokitiol was categorized under the Domestic substances list (DSL) in Canada as non-persistent, non-bioaccumulative and non-toxic to aquatic organisms. [ 33 ]


Hinokitiol is used in a range of consumer products intended for skin care, such as  soaps ,  skin lotions ,  eyelid cleanser ,  shampoos  and  hair tonics ; [ 4 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ]  for oral care, such as  toothpastes ,  breath sprays . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 36 ]


In April 2020, Advance Nanotek, an Australian producer of zinc oxide, filed a joint patent application with AstiVita Limited, for an anti-viral composition that included oral care products. [ 37 ]


Hinokitiol is found to have  insecticidal  and  pesticidal  activities against crop-damaging  termites  ( Reticulitermes speratus ,  Coptotermes formosanus ) and beetles ( Lasioderma serricorne ,  Callosobruchus chinensis ). [ 15 ] [ 38 ] [ 17 ]  It has also shown to act against certain mites ( Dermatophagoides farinae ,  Tyrophagus putrescentiae ) and mosquito larvae ( Aedes aegypti ,  Culex pipiens ). Hinokitiol is supplemented in commercial tick and  insect repellents . [ 19 ]


In experimental studies hinokitiol has been shown to act against  Botrytis cinerea , a necrotrophic fungus causing gray mold in many plant species and known to damage  horticultural   crops . Thus it has been suggested to be used for  post-harvest   waxing  to prevent  post-harvest decay . [ 17 ] [ 39 ]  Hinokitiol is a registered  food additive  in Japan. [ 6 ]  Hinokitiol appears to suppress  food browning  through inhibiting  browning enzymes , particularly tyrosinase and other  polyphenol oxidases  by chelating  copper  ions. [ 17 ]  This effect has been shown on different vegetables, fruits, mushrooms, flowers, plants, other agricultural products and seafood. [ 40 ]  Due to the latter effects, hinokitiol is used in  food packaging  as a  shelf-life  extending agent. [ 41 ]


Hinokitiol is one of the chemical compounds isolated from trees, known as  extractives , responsible for natural durability of certain trees. Hinokitiol is found in the  heartwood  of naturally durable trees belonging to the  Cupressaceae  family. [ 13 ] [ 42 ]  These compounds give the wood natural resistance to  decay  and insect attacks due to their fungicidal, insecticidal and pesticidal activities. Thereby, hinokitiol, as some other natural extractives, is suggested to be used as a  wood preservative  for  timber  treatment. [ 18 ]


Researchers screening a library of small biomolecules for signs of iron transport found that hinokitiol restored cell functionality. Further work by the team suggested a mechanism by which hinokitiol restores or reduces cell iron. [ 43 ]


Different  in-vitro  studies have investigated the effects of hinokitiol on various tumor  cell lines .


Indoor tanning lotions  accelerate the  tanning process , by promoting the production of  melanin . [ 1 ]  Increasing blood flow to the skin is a proposed mechanism, which may in turn stimulate production of melanin by melanocytes. [ 2 ]  Historically, indoor tanning lotions have contained no  sunscreen  and offer no protection from the sun. However, many tanning lotions currently contain sunscreen.  Unlike sunless tanning lotions, these are designed for use with an ultraviolet source such as a  tanning bed  or booth.


Some of the active ingredients found in common tanning lotions include melanin and  L-Tyrosine . [ 3 ]   Other commonly found ingredients include  tea oil ,  copper  (in many different chemical compounds),  green tea  extract and many other natural  oils .  Indoor tanning lotions are usually designed to only use ingredients that will not cause damage or build up on acrylic surfaces.  This is because all tanning beds use 100% acrylic in their protective shields. This is one reason people should not use outdoor tanning lotion in a tanning bed, as some common ingredients such as  mineral oil  (common ingredient in cosmetics, including some  baby oil  brands) will damage the surface of the acrylics. [ 4 ]


Tingle  is a standard description for indoor tanning lotions that contain ingredients that increase blood flow at the skin level, or cause a "tingling" sensation.


Some lotions have a bronzing effect to them. There are three different types of bronzers; cosmetic, natural and DHA. DHA (dihydroxyacetone) is a higher level of bronzer that stays on the skin for about 4–5 days depending on how much one exfoliates. Natural bronzers that are made from plant extracts, and stay on the skin for about 3–4 days, also exist. Cosmetic bronzers stain the skin the most, they stay on the skin for about 1–3 days and can be easily washed off in the shower. [ 5 ]  These bronzers work with the skin to provide a darker cosmetic color. They take approximately 4–6 hours to develop full color.  Having a base tan before using a bronzer produces a more natural looking color. Natural bronzers use natural ingredients, such as caramel, riboflavin, etc. These ingredients provide a slight instant boost of color, but will wash off in the shower.


Higher quality natural bronzer lotions will have certain organic ingredients/natural or exotic extracts that aid in the process of tanning (melanin production/oxidization).


One of the primary purposes for using indoor tanning lotions is to moisturize the skin.  This is because tanning (indoors or out) can dehydrate the skin so additional moisturization is needed to compensate and leave the skin looking smooth and healthy.  One of the most popular moisturizing elements in tanning lotions is  hempseed oil , although other oils are also common.  The primary moisturizing ingredients in tanning lotions are essentially the same as in regular hand lotions, although they tend to have less  alcohol  in them.


Most indoor tanning lotions do not offer protection from the sun (have no  SPF ) and are not intended for outdoor use. However, many tanning lotions now contain SPF.


The  Italy towel , ( Korean : 이태리 타올) also known as the  Korean exfoliating mitt  or  Korean exfoliating towel  (depending on the shape), [ 1 ]  is a mass-produced bath product used to scrub and peel the outermost layer of skin; it was invented in  Busan  by Kim Won-jo (CEO of Hanil Textile) in 1967. Since then, the Italy towel has become a household item in Korean homes and a staple item in  Korean saunas . The Italy towel is also used in other areas of Asia such as  Thailand , the north of  China , Central Asia and  Japan .


The Korean exfoliating mitt was named the Italy towel because the  viscose  fabric used to make it was imported from  Italy  at the time. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  Different colors represent different strengths, with green being the standard. [ 1 ]


According to a 2017 poll held by the  Korean Intellectual Property Office , the Italy towel was ranked as one of the top ten inventions made within the country. [ 5 ]


There are different types of Italy towels, with most towels typically made of two squares that are sewn together and fit snugly over the hand. [ 6 ]   The towels are made of various coarse materials such as viscose  rayon ,  sisal  hemp, and  nylon . [ 7 ]  The color of the Italy towel represents the item's strength, with pink and blue representing the softest and most coarse respectively. Green is used to designate the standard coarseness and is the most common type used. [ 1 ]


The coarse surface of the Italy towels is meant to help users exfoliate skin more effectively by using a scrubbing motion over the body. [ 6 ]   Vogue  writer Monica Kim has recommended that the towels be used after several minutes of soaking or exposing the skin in water to soften the skin and to use a soothing soap. [ 1 ]


Korean scrub staff, or  ttaemiri , recommend to only use the Italy towel once a week to avoid skin damage. [ 8 ]


This  health -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


K-beauty  ( Korean :  케이뷰티 ;  RR :  Keibyuti ) is an umbrella term for   skincare  products that are derived from  South Korea . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  The fad gained popularity worldwide, especially in  East Asia , [ 5 ] [ 6 ]   Southeast Asia , [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]   South Asia , [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]  and the  Western world , [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ]  and focuses on  health ,  hydration , and an emphasis on brightening effects. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ]


Although the focus for these beauty products are on skin aesthetics such as health, hydration, and luminous textured skin, glowing "glass skin" is favored by South Koreans. Rather than having layers of foundation, it is preferred to have a lengthy skincare regimen with a focus on toning and clarifying. Various natural ingredients are utilized in the creation of these products in addition to the numerous steps involved in a skincare routine. The skincare and cosmetics industry continues to lead the way in terms of economic gain, as displayed by the growth and expansion of Korean skincare domestically and internationally. [ 21 ]  The history of Korean skincare has influenced the standards for the ideal beauty and skincare routine which have become engrained into Korean norms over time. [ 22 ]  The result of which has led to several controversies and movements against harmful and rigid beauty standards set upon the Korean people. [ 22 ]


The  Asia-Pacific  holds the largest market share in the K-beauty industry as of December 2020, with Asian countries/regions being some of the largest consumers of K-beauty products. [ 23 ]  There is also a growing market for K-beauty products in Western countries such as the  United Kingdom . [ 24 ]


In recent years, Korean skincare and cosmetic products have become a worldwide phenomenon, revolutionizing the global beauty industry with innovative products and aesthetic trends. Korean beauty first emerged in the West in 2011 with the launch of the BB cream, marketed as a multi-tasking skincare product that serves as a foundation, moisturizer and sunscreen. [ 25 ]  Korean skin care products are available and can be found in department stores, pharmacies, and special beauty retailers. United States-based retailers have reported business growth since introducing Korean beauty products.


Beauty products consumers are paying more attention to the ingredients of the skin care products before investing and purchasing the items. Products that say natural and organic have more appeal to consumers. Recently, natural ingredients beauty products have clinical research studies began evaluating their therapeutic potential and biological cutaneous effects. [ 26 ]


Korean beauty standards  in the 21st century prize a youthful look and the appearance of moisture on the skin, which results in a preference for cremes over powders. K-beauty products are also more often designed for export, as a result of South Korea's history of  import substitution industrialization . [ 27 ]  K-Beauty products are presented using sophisticated ingredients and appealing packaging. Products use ingredients ranging from more natural sources such as green tea leaves, orchid, soybean [ 28 ]  to  snail slime ,  morphing  masks,  bee venom  (an  anti-inflammatory  "faux-tox" alleged to relax facial muscles),  moisturizing   starfish  extract, and pig collagen. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ]  The regimen involves a series of steps including  cleansing  rituals (with oil and water based products), sheet masks, essences,  serums ,  moisturizers , cushion compacts, fermented products, and SPF 35 sunscreen. At night, the sunscreen is replaced by a "night cream". [ 1 ] [ 32 ]  Each regimen is addressed differently depending on complexion factors including  hormonal  fluctuations and lifestyle choices. [ 33 ]


The ultra-elaborated K-Beauty skincare regimen consisted of an average of 10 steps. It normally starts with a dual cleaning ritual, series of sheet masks, essences lotions, serums, and rich moisturizers, and then ends with an SPF sunscreen, except at night when the sunscreen is swapped for a thick sleep cream. [ 1 ]  The facial skincare products are successful, due to the abundant development of new skin products and that two-thirds (68%) of all launches of skincare products were products from South Korea. [ 34 ] [ 35 ]  Although men are increasingly participating in the market, the focus is still on women.  YouTubers  offer tutorials on how to apply cosmetics and skincare products. [ 22 ]


South Korea is the leader of the global beauty industry, it continues to advance; analysts expect K-Beauty to generate immense growth and expansion of Korean skincare brands to bring in high revenue. [ 21 ]  This continues to be the projection for the upcoming years. [ 21 ]


South Korea is also known for being the center for many skin care brand's research and development as well as a manufacturing and production hub. [ 36 ]  The majority of Koreans are found to be well-educated and informed about skin care and health, so many of the products developed by Korea are thoroughly regulated. [ 37 ]  An additional factor for its success includes the influence of popular culture, such as the  Hallyu Wave , where celebrities promote makeup brands and help to promote them domestically and internationally. [ 38 ]


K-Beauty is associated with the  Korean Wave ; for example, the South Korean cosmetics company  Amorepacific  sponsored  My Love from the Star , a 2014  K-drama  whose constant marketing of Amorepacific products resulted in an increase in skincare and lipstick sales of up to 75 and 400 percent. The combination of increased international  tourism in South Korea  combined with K-Beauty products' presence in  duty-free shops  has also worked to increase sales of  cosmetics in Korea . [ 39 ]


In the past, Koreans were known to create and utilize several skincare and makeup products. Additionally, the superficial appearance was thought to be linked to one's inner health and care. [ 40 ]  Many were made from natural ingredients around them such as oils, plants, or natural powders. These natural cosmetics at the time added fragrance to the product which was often thought to reduce stress and fatigue, as stated in the  Gyuhap Chongseo  or Women's Encyclopedia. [ 40 ]  The origins of Korean beauty developed during the time of the  Three Kingdoms  where beauty culture became more prevalent. [ 41 ] [ 42 ]  A special emphasis was placed upon the  Goryeo  era as it was known to be the pinnacle for Korean beauty standards. [ 41 ]  In the Joseon dynasty, the idea of beauty stems from fair-looking skin and cherry lips to accentuates the elegancy of their status. [ 43 ]


Throughout each of the Three Kingdom eras, women and elites were often informed of what beauty products were acceptable via the  Gyuhap Chongseo . [ 40 ]  The Three Kingdoms included from oldest to recent:  Silla ,  Goguryeo , and  Baekje  (BC 37~668). [ 41 ]  Much of the information and knowledge of skincare and beauty from the Silla era was carried onto the Goguryeo era where further advancements were implemented. [ 41 ]  The Gyuhap Chongseo detailed the proper ways to do one's makeup. [ 40 ]


The Goguryeo era was thought to be excessive by Joseon standards. During the  Joseon  dynasty,  Confucianism  dictated what was acceptable in terms of beauty with a focus on the inner self. [ 44 ]  Korean beauty often flowed from the lower-class to the elites as many elites mirrored the female entertainers, known as  gisaeng . [ 40 ]  Beauty accessories and containers were then invented and sold. Trade and imports from other countries, like  Russia  and  China , then became more frequent. [ 41 ]


This is evidence of South Koreans' strong interest in physical wellbeing and attractiveness, which are considered to be linked both to body wellness. [ 45 ]  South Korea has become a destination for cosmetic tourism thanks to the popularity of K-beauty and the high quality of the country's doctors and healthcare system. [ 22 ]  The standards in South Korea have created the "Escape the Corset" movement to cast off what a minority believe are the country's rigid beauty standards.  This movement was created by a small group of women that wanted to put a stop to existing beauty standards, as well as their long-accepted attitude towards plastic surgery and cosmetic. This movement was inspired by the #MeToo Movement. [ 22 ]  The Korean wave has led to new  beauty standards  among young people in South Korea. Facial beauty products are particularly popular in South Korea. [ 34 ]


In common with most of the rest of the world, the value that South Koreans have placed on physical attractiveness can influence some young person's self-esteem and interpersonal and romantic relationships, for those who believe that they are not up to these standards. [ 40 ]  Social aesthetic preferences for women wearing makeup and having a small 'heart-shaped' face is strong. In South Korea, in the past pressure for conformity against people who left the mainstream path used to be relatively intense as compared to fellow advanced, democratized countries. [ 22 ]
In 2014 it was recorded that 980,000 cosmetic surgery procedures were done in that year, albeit only around 50 percent of them involved South Korean nationals. Thanks to the popularity of kbeauty and the quality of South Korean doctors and its healthcare system, many foreigners fly to South Korea for surgery, especially from China, Japan, the United States and Southeast Asia.
 [ 46 ]


Because of the hallyu Korean wave, the nation has seen Korean celebrities as models of physical attractiveness. Also, South Korea's growing cosmetic surgery industry has highlighted the attention its citizens and foreigners alike put on achieving defined standards of beauty. In the last decade, exposing nude torso has become requisite for male talents. [ 47 ]  The fast emergence of good physical physique derives from new strategies among Korea's media industries in shaping consumer desires by foregrounding male sexuality. [ 47 ]  For the women, not only is their body important but also their faces and skins. In this respect, South Korea is similar to the United States, Europe, Japan, China and Southeast Asia.


The global natural skincare product market in 2022 was estimated at US$17.78 billion billion, and is expected to reach US$19.73 billion in 2023.
 [ 48 ]


Natural skincare is often associated with clean beauty, which refers to cosmetic products that favor natural ingredients yet often incorporate synthetics that have been deemed safe for people and the planet. Although they go hand in hand, to be specific, natural can be clean, but clean is not always natural.
 [ 49 ]


Clean beauty at large encompasses conscious, cruelty-free, vegan, and sustainable packaging, and it is significantly connected to wellness.
 [ 50 ]


A  kabuki brush , sometimes called  mushroom brush , [ citation needed ]  is a  makeup brush  with dense  bristles  and a short  handle . [ 1 ]  The brush head is usually rounded, though it can also be flat. Traditionally, the bristles are made of natural materials like animal hair, such as from  horses  or  goats , but most modern brushes have synthetic bristles.


The brush is named after  kabuki , a traditional type of Japanese drama theater, in which actors wear heavy makeup painted in dramatic styles ( kumadori ) to emphasize the nature of the characters. Actors use the kabuki brush to apply the white rice powder uniformly on their face.


Usually, a kabuki brush is used to apply loose powdered make-up, such as  foundation ,  face powder , or blush, on large surfaces of the face. Because of its design, the brush blends powdered makeup evenly on the skin and creates natural-looking coverage.


Keratolytic  ( / ˌ k ɛr ə t oʊ ˈ l ɪ t ɪ k / [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ) therapy is a type of medical treatment to remove  warts ,  calluses  and other lesions in which the  epidermis  produces excess skin. In this therapy,  acidic  topical medicines, such as  Whitfield's ointment  or  Jessner's solution , are applied to the lesion in order to thin the  skin  on and around it. This therapy causes the outer layer of the skin to loosen and shed. [ 3 ]


Keratolytics can also be used to soften  keratin , a major component of the skin.  This serves to improve the skin's moisture binding capacity, which is beneficial in the treatment of dry skin. Such agents (keratolytics) include  alkalis  (by  swelling  and  hydrolysis  of skin),  salicylic acid ,  urea ,  lactic acid ,  allantoin ,  glycolic acid , and  trichloroacetic acid . [ 4 ]


While  cytostatic  agents such as  zinc pyrithione  are first line, keratolytics ( salicylic acid  and  sulfur ) can also be used in the treatment of  dandruff  and  seborrheic dermatitis . [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Sulfur and salicylic acid can also be used to effectively treat  acne  and  cradle cap  in some patients.  Resorcinol  is another keratolytic that is usually combined with sulfur. [ 4 ]   Urea  acts as a keratolytic due to its  hygroscopic  property.


Lip balm  or  lip salve  is a  wax -like substance applied to the lips to moisturize and relieve  chapped  or dry lips,  angular cheilitis ,  stomatitis , or  cold sores . Lip balm often contains   beeswax  or  carnauba wax ,  camphor ,  cetyl alcohol ,  lanolin ,  paraffin , and  petrolatum , among other ingredients. Some varieties contain dyes, flavor, fragrance,  phenol ,  salicylic acid , and  sunscreen .


The primary purpose of lip balm is to provide an occlusive layer on the lip surface to seal moisture in lips and protect them from external exposure. Dry air, cold temperatures, and wind all have a drying effect on skin by drawing moisture away from the body. Lips are particularly vulnerable because the skin is so thin, and thus they are often the first to present signs of dryness. Occlusive materials like waxes and  petroleum jelly  prevent moisture loss and maintain lip comfort while flavorings, colorants, sunscreens, and various medicaments can provide additional, specific benefits. Lip balms are produced from bee wax and natural candelilla and carnauba waxes. [ 1 ]


Lip balm can be applied by a finger to the lips, or in a  lipstick -style tube from which it can be applied directly.


In 2022, the global lip balm market was valued at US$732.76 mln. The market is predicted to grow at a rate of 9.28% within the next five years and is likely to reach US$1247.74 mln by 2027. [ 2 ]


Production for lip balms includes the following stages: [ 3 ]


Since 40 BC, the Egyptians made treatment for lip care, which was made with a mixture of beeswax, olive oil, and animal fat. [ 4 ]


In the 1800s,  Lydia Maria Child  recommended earwax as a treatment for cracked lips in her highly-popular book,  The American Frugal Housewife .  Child observed that, "Those who are troubled with cracked lips have found this earwax remedy successful when others have failed. It is one of those sorts of cures, which are very likely to be laughed at; but I know of its having produced very beneficial results." [ 5 ]  The invention of the lip balm was first formally invented in the 1880s by physician  Charles Brown Fleet [ 6 ]  though its origins may be traced to  earwax . [ 7 ]  Fleet later named his lip balm product " ChapStick ". [ 8 ]


In 1872, chemist  Robert Chesebrough  discovered and sampled a new petroleum jelly, initially describing it as a "natural, waxy ingredient, rich in minerals from deep within the earth" which could be used as a solution for skin repair. He then distributed his product under the name "Wonder Jelly" before shortly changing it to "Vaseline". [ 9 ]


In the early 1880s, Charles Brown Fleet created ChapStick. [ 8 ]  However, due to the lack of sales, Fleet sold his formula and rights to ChapStick to John Morton in 1912 for $5, who saw the marketing potential in the brand. [ 4 ]  After making the purchase, Morton commissioned Frank Wright, Jr. to create a design for the logo of ChapStick for $15 in 1936. [ 4 ]  In 1972, ChapStick tubes concealing hidden microphones were used during the  Watergate scandal . [ 10 ]


In 1937, Alfred Woelbing created  Carmex  to treat cold sores in Milwaukee, though the occurrence of  World War 2  would slow the production and sales due to the lack of  lanolin . In 1980, Carmex underwent a product change by converting its packaging into squeezable tubes. [ 11 ]


In 1973,  Bonne Bell  created the first flavored lip balm and marketed the company as Lip Smackers. The company would later collaborate on various different-flavored lip balms including  Dr. Pepper  in 1975,  The Wrigley Company  in 2004, and  The Coca-Cola Company  in 2006. Bonne Bell also collaborated with  Disney  to produce lip balms with various princess characters in 2010. [ 12 ]


In 1991, Burt Shavitz and Roxanne Quimby created their first beeswax based lip balm solution through their company,  Burt's Bees . [ 13 ]  In 2020, it was reported that Burt's Bees had used 50 percent of recycled material to package various products and that 100 percent of the products were recyclable. [ 14 ]


In 2011,  Evolution of Smooth  (or commonly known as EOS) created a spherical-shaped lip balm as well as describing its 95% organic ingredients. [ 4 ]


With the gradual legalization of cannabis in the United States, some companies have produced lip balms containing doses of  THC  or  CBD  oil. The lip balms were infused with a low dosage of THC in order to prevent the occurrence of any psychoactive or related effect.  [ citation needed ]


According to a report, professor Brad Rohu states that it is natural for the lips to feel dry. [ 15 ]  The exposure to environments with cold, dry, or windy weather can directly cause the chapping of the lips as well as behaviors such as lip licking or  mouth breathing . [ 16 ]  These factors may directly contribute to an increased amount of lip balm usage. According to dermatologist Amy Derick, those who have expressed dependencies on lip balm have developed a desire of how the lips feel after application. She also mentions that the variety of lip balm flavor may also directly cause lip balm dependency as a person may want to lick their lips to taste the flavor, which may consequentially remove the lip balm coating from the lips. This may also leave saliva on the lips which can dry up and make the lips feel even more dry than they initially were. [ 17 ]


Some physicians have suggested that certain types of lip balm can be addictive or contain ingredients that actually cause drying, [ 18 ]  though, it has been debated by many professionals. Lip balm manufacturers sometimes state in their FAQs that there is nothing addictive in their products or that all ingredients are listed and approved by the  FDA .  Snopes  found the claim that there are substances in  Carmex  that are irritants necessitating reapplication, such as ground glass, to be false. [ 19 ]  However, some experts such as dermatologist Dr. Cynthia Bailey state that some ingredients in lip balm directly causes sensitive lip skin which may lead to addiction. [ 20 ]  Dermatology professor Marcia Driscoll also adds onto this argument by stating that aroma ingredients found in flavored or scented lip balms have the potential to irritate skin. [ 21 ]


The human lips have an inadequate capability of holding moisture as well as an imperfect lip barrier function. [ 22 ]  The  Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology  performed a study in order to determine whether consistent use of lip balm would enhance the overall quality of the lips. The study used 32 female participants within the ages of 20 to 40 years and the participants had mild to moderate dried lips without any history of health-related complications. The participants underwent a procedure in which no lip treatment was provided on the first 3 days, then 2 weeks of consistent lip balm usage, and then a period of no treatment for 3 days. The study determined the quality of the lips based on the physical details and appearance throughout the study. The study showed a direct improvement of the physical details of the lips except for lip cracking during the second week of treatment and after the period of no treatment. The study also showed that hydration of the lips lasted for approximately 8 hours after usage and the lip balm improved the lip barrier function despite discontinued usage. The study concluded that lip balms assist the hydration of the lips which consequentially improves the lip barrier function and the quality. [ 23 ]  This study was completely funded by  Burt's Bees , a lip balm company.


In 2015, German consumer watchdog  Stiftung Warentest  analyzed cosmetics containing mineral oils. After developing a new detection method they found high concentrations of Mineral Oil Aromatic Hydrocarbons (MOAH) and even polyaromatics in products containing mineral oils with Vaseline products containing the most MOAH of all tested cosmetics (up to 9%). [ 24 ]  The  European Food Safety Authority  sees MOAH and polyaromatics as possibly carcinogenic. [ 24 ]  Based on the results, Stiftung Warentest warns not to use Vaseline or any product that is based on mineral oils for lip care.


In 2019, a research report conducted by the  Statista Research Department  concluded that ChapStick was the leading lip balm brand in the United States with an approximate unit sale of 55.8 million. Carmex was the second leading brand with approximately 35.2 million units sold and Burt's Bees being the third leading brand with approximately 32.3 million units sold. [ 25 ]


Beezin' is a trend dating back to 2013 in which a person applies  Burt's Bees  brand lip balm onto the eyelids. [ 26 ]  The practice is done in order to feel a sensation of being high or drunk, and even to increase the desired effects of alcohol and other substances. [ 27 ]  In 2022, Beezin' became a viral trend on the social media platform  TikTok . [ 28 ]  Some ingredients, including peppermint oil, are known to be eye irritants which can cause an unintentional inflammatory response which may require treatment and may also cause dermatitis on the eyelids. [ 29 ]


Liquid bandage  is a topical skin treatment for minor wounds which binds to the  skin  to form a protective  polymeric  layer that keeps dirt and germs out and moisture in. [ 1 ]  It can be directly applied to the wound after removing debris.


For the fast-acting, reactive adhesive that is used to mend deep cuts or surgery wounds, see  cyanoacrylates  (specifically  2-Octyl cyanoacrylate ).


Liquid bandage is typically a  polymer  dissolved in a solvent (commonly water or an alcohol), sometimes with an added  antiseptic  and  local anesthetic , although the alcohol in some brands may serve the same purpose. [ 1 ]  These products protect the wound by forming a thin film of polymer when the carrier evaporates. [ 1 ]  Polymers used may include  polyvinylpyrrolidone  (water based), ethyl cellulose,  pyroxylin / nitrocellulose  or poly(methylacrylate-isobutene-monoisopropylmaleate) (alcohol based), and  acrylate  or  siloxane  polymers ( hexamethyldisiloxane  or  isooctane  solvent based). [ 1 ]


In addition to their use in replacing conventional  bandages  in minor cuts  and scrapes, they have found use in surgical and veterinary offices. [ 1 ]  Liquid bandages are increasingly finding use in the field of combat, where they can be used to rapidly stanch a wound until proper medical attention can be obtained. [ 1 ]


Liquid bandages are suitable for clean cuts that close easily and shallow small wounds, as it will help both sides of the wound to bond and produce a  suture -like effect. Due to the drying of liquid wound dressing, it will form a nonelastic film on the wound and cannot absorb  tissue fluid . If the wound area is too large, it will actually hinder wound shrinkage and healing.


It's not recommended for use on large wounds, abrasion patches, ulcers,  suppuration , burns, sensitive skin areas around the eyes,  mucosa , and patients with  favism .


Lotion  is a low- viscosity  topical preparation intended for application to the  skin . By contrast,  creams  and  gels  have higher viscosity, typically due to lower water content. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]   Lotions are applied to external skin with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, or  cotton wool .


While a lotion may be used as a medicine delivery system, many lotions, especially  hand lotions  and  body lotions  and lotion for  allergies  are meant instead to simply smooth, moisturize, soften and, sometimes, perfume the skin. [ 3 ]


Some skincare products, such as  sunscreen  and  moisturizer , may be available in multiple formats, such as lotions, gels, creams, or sprays.


Dermatologists can prescribe lotions to treat or prevent skin diseases. [ 1 ]  It is not unusual for the same drug ingredient to be formulated into a lotion,  cream  and  ointment . Creams are the most convenient of the three but inappropriate for application to regions of hairy skin such as the scalp, while a lotion is less viscous and may be readily applied to these areas (many medicated  shampoos  are in fact lotions). Historically, lotions also had an advantage in that they may be spread thinly compared to a cream or ointment and may economically cover a large area of skin, but product research has steadily eroded this distinction.  Non-comedogenic  lotions are recommended for use on acne prone skin. [ 4 ]


Lotions can be used for the delivery to the skin of medications such as:


Since health care workers must wash their hands frequently to prevent disease transmission, hospital-grade lotion is recommended to prevent skin  dermatitis  caused by frequent exposure to cleaning agents in the soap. [ 5 ]  A 2006 study found that application of hospital-grade lotion after hand washing significantly reduced skin roughness and dryness. [ 6 ] [ failed verification ]


Care must be taken not to use consumer lotions in a hospital environment, as the  perfumes  and  allergens  may be a danger to those who are immunodeficient or with allergies. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


Most cosmetic lotions are  moisturizing lotions , although other forms, such as  tanning lotion , also exist.


Cosmetic lotions may be marketed as anti-aging lotions, which can also be classified as a cosmetic in many cases, and may contain fragrances. The  Food and Drug Administration  voiced concern about lotions not classified as drugs that advertise anti-aging or anti-wrinkle properties. [ 7 ] [ 9 ]


Most lotions are oil-in-water  emulsions  using a substance such as  cetearyl alcohol  to keep the emulsion together, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the  aqueous  and oily phases, an  emulsifier  to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the  drug  substance or substances. Various other ingredients such as  fragrances ,  glycerol ,  petroleum jelly ,  dyes ,  preservatives ,  proteins  and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.


Manufacturing lotions and creams can be completed in two cycles:


A typical oil-in-water manufacturing process may be:


Depending on their composition, lotions can be comedogenic, meaning that they can result in the increased formation of  comedones  (clogged hair follicles). [ 10 ]  People who are prone to  acne  or forming comedones often prefer lotions that are designed to be non-comedogenic (not causing outbreaks). [ 10 ]


All topical products, including lotions, can result in the  percutaneous (through the skin) absorption  of their ingredients. Though this has some use as a route of drug administration, it more commonly results in unintended  side effects . For example, medicated lotions such as  diprolene  are often used with the intention of exerting only  local effects , but absorption of the drug through the skin can occur to a small degree, resulting in systemic side effects such as  hyperglycemia  and  glycosuria . [ 11 ]


Absorption through the skin is increased when lotions are applied and then covered with an  occlusive  layer, when they are applied to large areas of the body, or when they are applied to damaged or broken skin. [ 11 ]


Lotions containing some aromas or food additives may trigger an immune reaction or even cause users to develop new allergies. [ 12 ]


There is currently no regulation over use of the term "hypoallergenic", and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. [ 13 ]  Those with  eczema  are especially vulnerable to an allergic reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with and activate immune cells. [ 14 ]


The  American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology  released a warning in 2014 that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed. [ 12 ]  A 2021 study found that "frequent skin moisturization in early life might promote the development of food allergy, most likely through transcutaneous sensitization". [ 15 ]


A  makeup brush  is a tool with  bristles , used for the application of  makeup  or  face painting . The bristles may be made out of natural or synthetic materials, while the handle is usually made out of plastic or wood. When cosmetics are applied using the appropriate brush, they blend better onto the skin.


There is a large variety of shapes and sizes of makeup brushes, depending on the face area where makeup will be applied, the cosmetic product and the wanted result. For example, the shape of the brush tip can be chiseled, straight, angular, round, flat or tapered.


Makeup application can alter due to the materials used to create a brush. The bristles of a makeup brush can either be synthetic or natural. In the application of the makeup, the brush itself is important because it can determine how the product is applied: depending on the makeup brush type and its bristles, it could either densely pack or loosely apply the makeup product.