By 2010, many US states and municipalities also enacted regulations on the use of phosphates in dishwashing detergent. [ 21 ]  At that time, The American Cleaning Institute announced a voluntary ban on the use of phosphates in all dish detergents. [ 22 ]  Despite this, Procter & Gamble’s sustainability reports only report the complete removal of phosphates from its Fairy and Dreft brand dish detergent; and these changes were not enacted until 2017. [ 23 ] [ 24 ]


The European Union took a different path than the United States. They banned the use of phosphates in consumer laundry and dish detergents in 2014 and 2017 respectively. [ 25 ]  Like the regulations enacted by many US states, these laws did not apply to the use of phosphates in commercial products. [ 25 ]


Although there are a number of exceptions to the laws and bans that allow phosphate use in detergent products [ 21 ]  and it is not entirely clear of the degree in which detergent manufacturers complied with their voluntary bans, there has been a significant reduction in phosphate use in detergent products. [ 15 ]  Today, formulations with zeolites, polycarboxylates, citric acid, and sodium bicarbonate are among the most effective and popular substitutes for phosphates in detergent cleaning products. [ 26 ]   This, along with improved water treatment processes, has greatly contributed to a significant reduction in the amount of phosphate from detergent in waterways. These efforts have resulted in an overall reduction of the phosphate concentration in US waterways and some of the ecosystems most effected by eutrophication, such as Lake Erie, to show drastic improvement. [ 15 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ]


There are also opponents to eliminating phosphates in detergent. [ 6 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ]  There are widespread claims that no effective substitute for phosphate has been developed, as many people report that when washing with phosphate free dish detergents, the dishes are left with a white film or spots on them. [ 30 ]  Opponents to bans of phosphate in dish detergents argue that efforts should be focused on developing an effective method of removal during the treatment process, not banning the product itself; which is both useful and unrivaled by any substitute. Additionally, there are arguments that phosphate is not the primary cause of eutrophication in coastal waters, and therefore phosphorus should not be regulated in these regions. This argument is based upon reports that the nitrogen content of coastal waters is limited (nitrogen is required for algal growth), therefore, reduction in phosphate use would have little effect on the amount of algae that can grow in these coastal areas. [ 6 ]


There have been more recent efforts to increase the  environmental sustainability  of laundry and dish detergents via the addition of enzymes that break down dirt and grease. Adding enzymes significantly reduces the amount of detergent needed to wash, and subsequently reduces the amount of surfactant being put into waterways. [ 1 ]  Enzymes that have been designed to work at lower temperatures can also significantly reduce the amount of energy needed to wash clothes. [ 1 ] [ 31 ]  For example, when using a top-load washer, switching from using “hot/warm” or “warm/warm” cycle to a “cold/cold” cycle uses 15 times and 11.6 times less energy, respectively. This technology has already been implemented by companies like Tide, in its Cold Water Clean Laundry Detergent. [ 32 ]


Automatic dishwashing detergent is poisonous if swallowed. [ 33 ]   Formaldehyde, while not intentionally added, has also been found in some detergent cleansing products. [ 34 ]  Per the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), exposure to formaldehyde at low levels from inhalation increases one’s risk of cancer and the EPA classifies formaldehyde as a B1 probable carcinogen. [ 35 ] [ 36 ]


There has also been recent concern about potential environmental and health risks associated with an antimicrobial agent called Triclosan. [ 37 ]  Triclosan is found in so many consumer products that it is believed that 75% of all Americans have been exposed to it. [ 38 ]  While research on the health and environmental risks of Triclosan are far from complete, studies have shown it is dermally absorbed and retained in the body and it has also been shown to disrupt biological processes. [ 38 ]  Investigations of the chemical properties of Triclosan have revealed it has the potential to accumulate and persist in the environment. [ 37 ]  In 2016, the FDA banned the marketing of Triclosan, along with several other antimicrobial agents, in antibacterial detergent products because “manufactures did not demonstrate that the ingredients are both safe for long-term daily use and more effective than plain soap and water in preventing illness and the spread of certain infections”. [ 39 ]  In the US, Triclosan is still used in toothpaste, mouthwash, hand sanitizer, and surgical soaps. [ 38 ]  In 2017, the European Union banned Triclosan from all personal hygiene products. [ 40 ]


Even though the fragrances in scented cleaning products have been shown to release volatile and potentially harmful compounds into the air, fragrance ingredients are not required to be listed by manufactures. [ 41 ] [ 42 ]  Artificial fragrances can cause sensitivity, allergies, and rashes and some of these chemicals are known carcinogens and endocrine disruptors. [ 43 ]


There are still many compounds that are potentially damaging to human and environmental health found in many detergent cleaning products; and just because a product is labeled as “green” does not mean it is safe. [ 44 ]  If people are concerned about being exposed to harmful compounds through detergent products, it is best to do their own research on how to decide which product is best for them using a reliable source, such as the EPA’s “Safer Choice” program, which provides consumers with safety information of products like dish, laundry, and hand detergents. [ 44 ] [ 45 ]


There are many small companies that offer soaps claimed to be made the traditional way (from all natural fats and contain no harmful additives, such as Rocky Mountain Soap Co. and Dr. Squatch Soap Co). There are also companies that claim to sell all natural and additive free laundry soaps, but many of these soaps still contain an additive called borax, which has been shown to cause irritation to skin, eyes, and lungs as well as reproductive and kidney damage if swallowed or inhaled.


Additionally, one can ensure their soap is all natural and contains no potentially harmful additives by making their own soap at home. There are many resources for instructions on making soap at home, and the only required ingredients are plant or animal fat, water, and lye (sodium hydroxide). It is also noteworthy that there are many homemade products that are highly efficient at cleaning, such as hot water, vinegar, baking soda, lemon juice, salt, coffee powder, ascorbic acid, and grapefruit extract. [ 2 ]


Sunscreen , also known as  sunblock , [ a ]   sun lotion  or  sun cream , is a  photoprotective  topical product for the  skin  that helps protect against  sunburn  and prevent  skin cancer . Sunscreens come as  lotions , sprays, gels, foams (such as an expanded foam lotion or whipped lotion [ 4 ] ), sticks, powders and other topical products. Sunscreens are common supplements to clothing, particularly  sunglasses ,  sunhats  and special  sun protective clothing , and other forms of photoprotection (such as  umbrellas ).


Sunscreens may be classified according to the type of  active ingredient(s)  present in the formulation ( inorganic compounds  or  organic molecules ) as:


Medical organizations such as the  American Cancer Society  recommend the use of sunscreen because it aids in the prevention of  squamous cell carcinomas . [ 12 ]  The routine use of sunscreens may also reduce the risk of  melanoma . [ 13 ]  To effectively protect against all the potential damages of UV light, the use of broad-spectrum sunscreens (covering both  UVA  and  UVB  radiation) has been recommended. [ 3 ]


As of 2021, only zinc oxide and titanium dioxide are generally recognized as safe and effective ( GRASE ) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [ 14 ]  since there is currently insufficient data to support recognizing petrochemical UV filters as safe.


Early civilizations used a variety of plant products to help protect the skin from sun damage. For example,  ancient Greeks  used olive oil for this purpose, and  ancient Egyptians  used extracts of rice, jasmine, and lupine plants whose products are still used in skin care today. [ 15 ]  Zinc oxide paste has also been popular for skin protection for thousands of years. [ 16 ]  Among the nomadic sea-going  Sama-Bajau people  of the  Philippines ,  Malaysia , and  Indonesia , a common type of sun protection is a paste called  borak  or  burak , which was made from water weeds, rice and spices. It is used most commonly by women to protect the face and exposed skin areas from the harsh tropical sun at sea. [ 17 ]  In  Myanmar ,  thanaka , a yellow-white cosmetic paste made of ground bark, is traditionally used for sun protection. In  Madagascar , a ground wood paste called  masonjoany  has been worn for sun protection, as well as decoration and insect repellent, since the 18th century, and is ubiquitous in the Northwest coastal regions of the island to this day. [ 18 ] [ 19 ]


The first ultraviolet B filters were produced in 1928. [ 20 ]  Followed by the first sunscreen, invented in Australia by chemist H.A. Milton Blake, in 1932 [ 21 ]  formulating with the UV filter 'salol' (Phenyl salicylate) at a concentration of 10%. [ 22 ]  Its protection was verified by the  University of Adelaide . [ 23 ] [ 24 ]  In 1936,  L'Oreal  released its first sunscreen product, formulated by French chemist  Eugène Schueller . [ 21 ]


The US military was an early adopter of sunscreen. In 1944, as the hazards of sun overexposure became apparent to soldiers stationed in the Pacific tropics at the height of  World War II , [ 25 ] [ 21 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ]  Benjamin Green, an airman and later a  pharmacist  produced Red Vet Pet (for red veterinary petrolatum) for the US military. Sales boomed when  Coppertone  improved and commercialized the substance under the  Coppertone girl  and  Bain de Soleil  branding in the early 1950s. In 1946,  Austrian  chemist Franz Greiter introduced a product, called  Gletscher Crème  (Glacier Cream), subsequently became the basis for the company Piz Buin, named in honor of  the mountain  where Greiter allegedly received the sunburn. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ]


In 1974, Greiter adapted earlier calculations from Friedrich Ellinger and Rudolf Schulze and introduced the "sun protection factor" (SPF), which has become the global standard for measuring UVB protection. [ 25 ] [ 31 ]  It has been estimated that  Gletscher Crème  had an SPF of 2.


Water-resistant sunscreens were introduced in 1977, [ 21 ]  and recent development efforts have focused on overcoming later concerns by making sunscreen protection both longer-lasting and broader-spectrum (protection from both UVA & UVB rays), more environmentally friendly, [ 32 ]  more appealing to use [ 25 ]  and addressing the safety concerns of petrochemical sunscreens, i.e. FDA studies showing their systematic absorption into the bloodstream. [ 33 ]


Sunscreen use can help prevent  melanoma [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ]  and  squamous cell carcinoma , two types of  skin cancer . [ 37 ]  There is little evidence that it is effective in preventing  basal cell carcinoma . [ 38 ]


A 2013 study concluded that the diligent, everyday application of sunscreen could slow or temporarily prevent the development of wrinkles and sagging skin. [ 39 ]  The study involved 900  white  people in Australia and required some of them to apply a broad-spectrum sunscreen every day for four and a half years. It found that people who did so had noticeably more resilient and smoother skin than those assigned to continue their usual practices. [ 39 ]  A study on 32 subjects showed that daily use of sunscreen (SPF 30) reversed  photoaging  of the skin within 12 weeks and the amelioration continued until the end of the investigation period of one year. [ 40 ]  Sunscreen is inherently anti-ageing as the sun is the number one cause of premature ageing; it therefore may slow or temporarily prevent the development of wrinkles, dark spots, and sagging skin.


Minimizing UV damage is especially important for children and fair-skinned individuals and those who have  sun sensitivity  for medical reasons. [ 41 ]


In February 2019, the US  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) started classifying already approved UV filter molecules into three categories: those which are  generally recognized as safe and effective  (GRASE), those which are non-GRASE due to safety issues, and those requiring further evaluation. [ 42 ]  As of 2021, only zinc oxide and titanium dioxide are recognized as GRASE. [ 43 ]  Two previously approved UV filters, para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) and trolamine salicylate, were banned in 2021 due to safety concerns. The remaining FDA approved active ingredients were put in the third category as their manufacturers have yet to produce sufficient safety data — despite the fact that some of the chemicals have sold in sunscreen products for more than 40 years. [ 7 ]  Some researchers argue that the risk of sun-induced skin cancer outweighs concerns about toxicity and mutagenicity, [ 44 ] [ 45 ]  although environmentalists say this ignores "ample safer alternatives available on the market containing the active ingredient minerals zinc oxide or titanium dioxide", which are also safer for the environment. [ 46 ]


Regulators can investigate and ban UV filters over safety concerns (such as  PABA ), which can result in withdrawal of products from the consumer market. [ 25 ] [ 47 ]  Regulators, such as the TGA and the FDA, have also been concerned with recent reports of contamination in sunscreen products with known possible human carcinogens such as  benzene  and  benzophenone . [ 48 ]  Independent laboratory testing carried out by Valisure found benzene contamination in 27% of the sunscreens they tested, with some batches having up to triple the FDA's conditionally restricted limit of 2 parts per million (ppm). [ 49 ]  This resulted in a voluntary recall by some major sunscreen brands that were implicated in the testing, as such, regulators also help publicise and coordinate these voluntary recalls. [ 50 ]  VOC's (Volatile Organic Compounds) such as benzene, are particularly harmful in sunscreen formulations as many active and inactive ingredients can increase permeation across the skin. [ 51 ]  Butane, which is used as a propellant in spray sunscreens, has been found to have benzene impurities from the refinement process. [ 52 ]


Recent research by the FDA on six common petrochemical UV filters ( avobenzone ,  oxybenzone ,  octocrylene ,  homosalate ,  octisalate , and  octinoxate ) found that they could be detected on the skin, in blood, in breast milk and in urine samples weeks after a single use. [ 53 ] [ 54 ]


There is a risk of an allergic reaction to sunscreen for some individuals, as "Typical allergic contact dermatitis may occur in individuals allergic to any of the ingredients that are found in sunscreen products or cosmetic preparations that have a sunscreen component. The rash can occur anywhere on the body where the substance has been applied and sometimes may spread to unexpected sites." [ 55 ]


There are some concerns about potential  vitamin D deficiency  arising from prolonged use of sunscreen. [ 56 ] [ 57 ]  The typical use of sunscreen does not usually result in vitamin D deficiency; however, extensive usage may. [ 58 ]  Sunscreen prevents ultraviolet light from reaching the skin, and even moderate protection can substantially reduce vitamin D synthesis. [ 59 ] [ 60 ]  However, adequate amounts of vitamin D can be obtained via diet or supplements. [ 61 ]  Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure due to an equilibrium the skin reaches in which vitamin D degrades as quickly as it is created. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ]


High-SPF sunscreens filter out most UVB radiation, which triggers vitamin D production in the skin. However, clinical studies show that regular sunscreen use does not lead to vitamin D deficiency. Even high-SPF sunscreens allow a small amount of UVB to reach the skin, sufficient for vitamin D synthesis. Additionally, brief, unprotected  sun exposure  can produce ample vitamin D, but this exposure also risks significant DNA damage and skin cancer. To avoid these risks, vitamin D can be obtained safely through  diet  and supplements. Foods like  fatty fish , fortified milk, and orange juice, along with supplements, provide necessary vitamin D without harmful sun exposure.
 [ 65 ]


Studies have shown that sunscreen with a high UVA protection factor enabled significantly higher vitamin D synthesis than a low UVA protection factor sunscreen, likely because it allows more UVB transmission. [ 66 ] [ 67 ]


The sun protection factor (SPF rating, introduced in 1974) is a measure of the fraction of sunburn-producing UV rays that reach the skin. For example, "SPF 15" means that  1 ⁄ 15  of the burning radiation will reach the skin, assuming sunscreen is applied evenly at a thick  dosage  of 2 milligrams per square centimeter [ 68 ]  (mg/cm 2 ). It is important to note that sunscreens with higher SPF do not last or remain effective on the skin any longer than lower SPF and must be continually reapplied as directed, usually every two hours. [ 69 ]


The SPF is an imperfect measure of skin damage because invisible damage and skin malignant melanomas are also caused by  ultraviolet A  (UVA, wavelengths 315–400 or 320–400  nm ), which does not primarily cause reddening or pain. Conventional sunscreen blocks very little UVA radiation relative to the nominal SPF; broad-spectrum sunscreens are designed to protect against both UVB and UVA. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] [ 72 ]  According to a 2004 study, UVA also causes  DNA damage  to cells deep within the skin, increasing the risk of  malignant melanomas . [ 73 ]  Even some products labeled "broad-spectrum UVA/UVB protection" have not always provided good protection against UVA rays. [ 74 ]   Titanium dioxide  probably gives good protection but does not completely cover the UVA spectrum, with early 2000s research suggesting that zinc oxide is superior to titanium dioxide at wavelengths 340–380 nm. [ 75 ]


Owing to consumer confusion over the real degree and duration of protection offered, labelling restrictions are enforced in several countries. In the  EU , sunscreen labels can only go up to SPF 50+ (initially listed as 30 but soon revised to 50). [ 76 ]   Australia 's  Therapeutic Goods Administration  increased the upper limit to 50+ in 2012. [ 77 ] [ 78 ]  In its 2007 and 2011 draft rules, the US  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) proposed a maximum SPF label of 50, to limit unrealistic claims. [ 79 ] [ 3 ] [ 80 ]  (As of August 2019, the FDA has not adopted the SPF 50 limit. [ 81 ] ) Others have proposed restricting the active ingredients to an SPF of no more than 50, due to lack of evidence that higher dosages provide more meaningful protection, [ 82 ]  despite a common misconception that protection directly scales with SPF; doubling when SPF is doubled. [ 83 ] [ 84 ]  Different sunscreen ingredients have different effectiveness against UVA and UVB. [ 85 ]


The SPF can be measured by applying sunscreen to the skin of a volunteer and measuring how long it takes before sunburn occurs when exposed to an artificial sunlight source. In the US, such an  in vivo  test is required by the FDA. It can also be measured  in vitro  with the help of a specially designed  spectrometer . In this case, the actual  transmittance  of the sunscreen is measured, along with the degradation of the product due to being exposed to sunlight. In this case, the transmittance of the sunscreen must be measured over all wavelengths in sunlight's UVB–UVA range (290–400 nm), along with a table of how effective various wavelengths are in causing sunburn (the  erythemal action spectrum ) and the standard intensity  spectrum  of sunlight (see the figure). Such  in vitro  measurements agree very well with  in vivo  measurements. [ attribution needed ]


Numerous methods have been devised for evaluation of UVA and UVB protection. The most-reliable spectrophotochemical methods eliminate the subjective nature of grading  erythema . [ 86 ]


The ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) is a similar scale developed for rating fabrics for  sun protective clothing . According to recent testing by  Consumer Reports , UPF ~30+ is typical for protective fabrics, while UPF ~20 is typical for standard summer fabrics. [ 87 ]


Mathematically, the SPF (or the UPF) is calculated from measured data as: [ citation needed ]


S
 P
 F

 =

 ∫
 A
 (
 λ
 )
 E
 (
 λ
 )
 d
 λ

 ∫
 A
 (
 λ
 )
 E
 (
 λ
 )

 /

 M
 P
 F

 (
 λ
 )

 d
 λ

 ,

 {\displaystyle \mathrm {SPF} ={\frac {\int A(\lambda )E(\lambda )d\lambda }{\int A(\lambda )E(\lambda )/\mathrm {MPF} (\lambda )\,d\lambda }},}


where

 E
 (
 λ
 )

 {\displaystyle E(\lambda )}

  is the  solar irradiance  spectrum,

 A
 (
 λ
 )

 {\displaystyle A(\lambda )}

  the erythemal action spectrum, and

 M
 P
 F

 (
 λ
 )

 {\displaystyle \mathrm {MPF} (\lambda )}

  the monochromatic protection factor, all functions of the wavelength

 λ

 {\displaystyle \lambda }

 . The MPF is roughly the inverse of the transmittance at a given wavelength. [ citation needed ]


The combined SPF of two layers of sunscreen may be lower than the square of the single-layer SPF. [ 88 ]


The persistent pigment darkening (PPD) method is a method of measuring UVA protection, similar to the SPF method of measuring sunburn protection. Originally developed in Japan, it is the preferred method used by manufacturers such as  L'Oréal .


Instead of measuring  erythema , the PPD method uses UVA radiation to cause a persistent darkening or tanning of the skin. Theoretically, a sunscreen with a PPD rating of 10 should allow a person 10 times as much UVA exposure as would be without protection. The PPD method is an  in vivo  test like SPF. In addition, the European Cosmetic and Perfumery Association ( Colipa ) has introduced a method that, it is claimed, can measure this  in vitro  and provide parity with the PPD method. [ 89 ]


As part of revised guidelines for sunscreens in the EU, there is a requirement to provide the consumer with a minimum level of UVA protection in relation to the SPF. This should be a UVA protection factor of at least 1/3 of the SPF to carry the UVA seal. [ 90 ]  The 1/3 threshold derives from the European Commission recommendation 2006/647/EC. [ 91 ]  This Commission recommendation specifies that the UVA protection factor should be measured using the PPD method as modified by the French health agency  AFSSAPS (now ANSM)  "or an equivalent degree of protection obtained with any in vitro method". [ 92 ]


A set of final US FDA rules effective from summer 2012 defines the phrase "broad spectrum" as providing UVA protection proportional to the UVB protection, using a standardized testing method. [ 3 ]


In the UK and Ireland, the  Boots  star rating system is a proprietary  in vitro  method used to describe the ratio of UVA to UVB protection offered by sunscreen creams and sprays. Based on original work by Brian Diffey at  Newcastle University , the Boots Company in Nottingham, UK, developed a method that has been widely adopted by companies marketing these products in the UK.


One-star products provide the lowest ratio of UVA protection, five-star products the highest. The method was revised in light of the Colipa UVA PF test and the revised EU recommendations regarding UVA PF. The method still uses a  spectrophotometer  to measure absorption of UVA versus UVB; the difference stems from a requirement to pre-irradiate samples (where this was not previously required) to give a better indication of UVA protection and photostability when the product is used. With the current methodology, the lowest rating is three stars, the highest being five stars.


In August 2007, the FDA put out for consultation the proposal that a version of this protocol be used to inform users of American product of the protection that it gives against UVA; [ 79 ]  but this was not adopted, for fear it would be too confusing. [ 82 ]


Asian brands, particularly Japanese ones, tend to use The Protection Grade of UVA (PA) system to measure the UVA protection that a sunscreen provides. The PA system is based on the PPD reaction and is now widely adopted on the labels of sunscreens. According to the Japan Cosmetic Industry Association, PA+ corresponds to a UVA protection factor between two and four, PA++ between four and eight, and PA+++ more than eight. This system was revised in 2013 to include PA++++ which corresponds to a PPD rating of sixteen or above.


Some sunscreens include an  expiration date —a date indicating when they may become less effective. [ 93 ]


Sunscreen formulations contain UV absorbing compounds (the active ingredients) dissolved or dispersed in a mixture of other ingredients, such as water, oils, moisturizers, and antioxidants. The UV filters can be either:


The organic compounds used as UV filter are often  aromatic  molecules  conjugated  with  carbonyl  groups. This general structure allows the molecule to absorb high-energy ultraviolet rays and release the energy as lower-energy rays, thereby preventing the skin-damaging ultraviolet rays from reaching the skin. So, upon exposure to UV light, most of the ingredients (with the notable exception of  avobenzone ) do not undergo significant chemical change, allowing these ingredients to retain the UV-absorbing potency without significant  photodegradation . [ 97 ]  A chemical stabilizer is included in some sunscreens containing avobenzone to slow its breakdown. The stability of avobenzone can also be improved by  bemotrizinol , [ 98 ]   octocrylene [ 99 ]  and various other photostabilisers. Most organic compounds in sunscreens slowly degrade and become less effective over the course of several years even if stored properly, resulting in the  expiration dates  calculated for the product. [ 100 ]


Sunscreening agents are used in some hair care products such as shampoos, conditioners and styling agents to protect against protein degradation and color loss. Currently,  benzophenone-4  and  ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate  are the two sunscreens most commonly used in hair products. The common sunscreens used on skin are rarely used for hair products due to their texture and weight effects.


UV filters need usually to be approved by local agencies (such as the FDA in the United States) to be used in sunscreen formulations. As of 2023, 29 compounds are approved in the European Union and 17 in the USA. [ 95 ]  No UV filters have been approved by the FDA for use in cosmetics since 1999.


The following are the FDA allowable active ingredients in sunscreens:


(Not currently supported in EU and may be delisted)


Zinc oxide was approved as a UV filter by the EU in 2016. [ 113 ]


Other ingredients approved within the EU [ 114 ]  and other parts of the world, [ 115 ]  that have not been included in the current FDA Monograph:


*  Time and Extent Application (TEA), Proposed Rule on FDA approval originally expected 2009, now expected 2015. [ needs update ]


Many of the ingredients awaiting approval by the FDA are relatively new, and developed to absorb UVA. [ 118 ]  The 2014  Sunscreen Innovation Act  was passed to accelerate the FDA approval process. [ 119 ] [ 120 ]


It is known that SPF is affected by not only the choice of active ingredients and the percentage of active ingredients but also the formulation of the vehicle/base. Final SPF is also impacted by the distribution of active ingredients in the sunscreen, how evenly the sunscreen applies on the skin, how well it dries down on the skin and the pH value of the product among other factors. Changing any inactive ingredient may potentially alter a sunscreen's SPF. [ 121 ] [ 122 ]


When combined with UV filters, added  antioxidants  can work synergistically to affect the overall SPF value positively. Furthermore, adding antioxidants to sunscreen can amplify its ability to reduce markers of extrinsic photoaging, grant better protection from  UV induced pigment formation , mitigate skin  lipid peroxidation , improve the photostability of the active ingredients, neutralize reactive oxygen species formed by irradiated photocatalysts  (e.g., uncoated TiO₂)  and aid in DNA repair post-UVB damage, thus enhancing the efficiency and safety of sunscreens. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] [ 125 ] [ 126 ]  Compared with sunscreen alone, it has been shown that the addition of antioxidants has the potential to suppress  ROS  formation by an additional 1.7-fold for SPF 4 sunscreens and 2.4-fold for SPF 15-to-SPF 50 sunscreens, but the efficacy depends on how well the sunscreen in question has been formulated. [ 127 ]  Sometimes  osmolytes  are also incorporated into commercially available sunscreens in addition to antioxidants since they also aid in protecting the skin from the detrimental effects of UVR. [ 128 ]  Examples include the osmolyte taurine, which has demonstrated the ability to protects against UVB-radiation induced immunosuppression [ 129 ]  and the osmolyte ectoine, which aids in counteracting cellular accelerated aging & UVA-radiation induced premature photoaging. [ 130 ]


Other inactive ingredients can also assist in photostabilizing unstable UV filters.  Cyclodextrins  have demonstrated the ability to reduce photodecomposition, protect antioxidants and limit skin penetration past the  uppermost skin layers , allowing them to longer maintain the protection factor of sunscreens with UV filters that are highly unstable and/or easily permeate to the lower layers of the skin. [ 131 ] [ 132 ] [ 124 ]  Similarly,  film-forming polymers  like polyester-8 and polycryleneS1 have the ability to protect the efficacy of older petrochemical UV filters by preventing them from destabilizing due to extended light exposure. These kinds of ingredients also increase the water resistance of sunscreen formulations. [ 133 ] [ 134 ]


In the 2010s and 2020s, there has been increasing interest in sunscreens that protect the wearer from the sun's  high-energy visible light  and  infrared light  as well as ultraviolet light. This is due to newer research revealing  blue & violet visible light  and certain wavelengths of infrared light  (e.g.,  NIR, IR-A )  work synergistically with UV light in contributing to oxidative stress, free radical generation, dermal cellular damage, suppressed skin healing, decreased immunity, erythema, inflammation, dryness, and several aesthetic concerns, such as: wrinkle formation, loss of skin elasticity and dyspigmentation. [ 135 ] [ 136 ] [ 137 ] [ 138 ] [ 139 ] [ 140 ] [ 141 ]  Increasingly, a number of commercial sunscreens are being produced that have manufacturer claims regarding skin protection from blue light, infrared light and even air pollution. [ 141 ]  However, as of 2021 there are no regulatory guidelines or mandatory testing protocols that govern these claims. [ 127 ]  Historically, the American FDA has only recognized protection from sunburn  (via UVB protection)  and protection from skin cancer  (via SPF 15+ with some UVA protection)  as drug/medicinal sunscreen claims, so they do not have regulatory authority over sunscreen claims regarding protecting the skin from damage from these other environmental stressors. [ 142 ]  Since sunscreen claims not related to protection from ultraviolet light are treated as  cosmeceutical  claims rather than drug/medicinal claims, the innovative technologies and additive ingredients used to allegedly reduce the damage from these other environmental stressors may vary widely from brand to brand.


Some studies show that mineral sunscreens primarily made with substantially large particles  (i.e., neither nano nor micronized)  may help protect from visible and infrared light to some degree, [ 141 ] [ 127 ] [ 143 ]  but these sunscreens are often unacceptable to consumers due to leaving an obligatory opaque white cast on the skin. Further research has shown that sunscreens with added  iron oxide pigments  and/or pigmentary titanium dioxide can provide the wearer with a substantial amount of HEVL protection. [ 127 ] [ 144 ] [ 145 ] [ 146 ]  Cosmetic chemists have found that other  cosmetic-grade  pigments can be functional filler ingredients.  Mica  was discovered to have significant synergistic effects with UVR filters when formulated in sunscreens, in that it can notably increase the formula's ability to protect the wearer from HEVL. [ 139 ]


There is a growing amount of research demonstrating that adding various vitamer antioxidants  (eg;  retinol ,  alpha tocopherol, gamma tocopherol ,  tocopheryl acetate ,  ascorbic acid ,  ascorbyl tetraisopalmitate, ascorbyl palmitate, sodium ascorbyl phosphate ,  ubiquinone )  and/or a mixture of certain botanical antioxidants  (eg;  epigallocatechin-3-gallate ,  b-carotene ,  vitis vinifera ,  silymarin ,  spirulina extract ,  chamomile extract  and possibly others)  to sunscreens efficaciously aids in reducing damage from the free radicals produced by exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation, visible light, near infrared radiation and infrared-a radiation. [ 123 ] [ 147 ] [ 137 ] [ 127 ] [ 148 ] [ 125 ] [ 128 ]  Since sunscreen's active ingredients work preventatively by creating a shielding film on the skin that absorbs, scatters, and reflects light before it can reach the skin, UV filters have been deemed an ideal “first line of defense” against sun damage when exposure can't be avoided. Antioxidants have been deemed a good “second line of defense” since they work responsively by decreasing the overall burden of free radicals that do reach the skin. [ 139 ]  The degree of the free radical protection from the entire solar spectral range that a sunscreen can offer has been termed the "radical protection factor" (RPF) by some researchers.


SPF 30 or above must be used to effectively prevent UV rays from damaging skin cells. This is the amount that is recommended to prevent against skin cancer. Sunscreen must also be applied thoroughly and re-applied during the day, especially after being in the water. Special attention should be paid to areas like the ears and nose, which are common spots of skin cancer. Dermatologists may be able to advise about what sunscreen is best to use for specific skin types. [ 149 ]


The dose used in FDA sunscreen testing is 2 mg/cm 2  of exposed skin. [ 97 ]  If one assumes an "average" adult build of height 5 ft 4 in (163 cm) and weight 150 lb (68 kg) with a 32-inch (82-cm) waist, that adult wearing a bathing suit covering the groin area should apply approximately 30 g (or 30 ml, approximately 1 oz) evenly to the uncovered body area. This can be more easily thought of as a "golf ball" size amount of product per body, or at least six teaspoonfuls. Larger or smaller individuals should scale these quantities accordingly. [ 150 ]  Considering only the face, this translates to about 1/4 to 1/3 of a teaspoon for the average adult face.


Some studies have shown that people commonly apply only 1/4 to 1/2 of the amount recommended for achieving the rated sun protection factor (SPF), and in consequence the effective SPF should be downgraded to a 4th root or a square root of the advertised value, respectively. [ 88 ]  A later study found a significant exponential relation between SPF and the amount of sunscreen applied, and the results are closer to linearity than expected by theory. [ 151 ]


Claims that substances in pill form can act as sunscreen are false and disallowed in the United States. [ 152 ]


On 1 January 2020,  Palau  banned the manufacturing and selling of sun cream products containing any of the following ingredients:  benzophenone-3 ,  octyl methoxycinnamate ,  octocrylene ,  4-methyl-benzylidene camphor ,  triclosan ,  methylparaben ,  ethylparaben ,  butylparaben ,  benzyl paraben , and  phenoxyethanol . [ 153 ]  The decision was taken to protect the local coral reef and sea life. [ 154 ]  Those compounds are known or suspected to be harmful to coral or other sea life. [ 154 ]


Sunscreen labeling standards have been evolving in the United States since the FDA first adopted the SPF calculation in 1978. [ 155 ]  The FDA issued a comprehensive set of rules in June 2011, taking effect in 2012–2013, designed to help consumers identify and select suitable sunscreen products offering protection from sunburn, early skin aging, and skin cancer. [ 156 ] [ 157 ] [ 158 ]  However, unlike other countries, the United States classifies sunscreen as an over-the-counter drug rather than a cosmetic product. As FDA approval of a new drug is typically far slower than for a cosmetic, the result is fewer ingredients available for sunscreen formulations in the US compared with many other countries. [ 159 ] [ 160 ]


In 2019, the FDA proposed tighter regulations on sun protection and general safety, including the requirement that sunscreen products with SPF greater than 15 must be broad spectrum, and imposing a prohibition on products with SPF greater than 60. [ 161 ]


In 2021, the FDA introduced an additional administrative order regarding the safety classification of cosmetic UV filters, to categorize a given ingredient as either:


To be considered a GRASE active ingredient, the FDA requires it to have undergone both non-clinical animal studies as well as human clinical studies. The animal studies evaluate the potential for inducing carcinogenesis, genetic or reproductive harm, and any toxic effects of the ingredient once absorbed and distributed in the body. The human trials expand upon the animal trials, providing additional information on safety in the pediatric population, protection against UVA and UVB, and the potential for skin reactions after application. Two previously approved UV filters, para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) and trolamine salicylate, were reclassified as  not GRASE  due to safety concerns and have consequently been removed from the market. [ 95 ]


Europe


In Europe, sunscreens are considered a cosmetic product rather than an over-the-counter drug. These products are regulated by the Cosmetic Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009, which was created in July 2013. [ 162 ]  The recommendations for formulating sunscreen products are guided by the Scientific Community on Consumer Safety (SCCS). [ 163 ]  The regulation of cosmetic products in Europe requires the producer to follow six domains when formulating their product:


I. Cosmetic safety report must be conducted by a qualified personnel


II. The product must not contain substances banned for cosmetic products


III. The product must not contain substances restricted for cosmetic products


IV. The product must adhere to the approved list of colourants for cosmetic products.


V. The product must adhere to the approved list of preservatives for cosmetic products.


VI. The product must contain UV filters approved in Europe. [ 163 ]


According to the EC, sunscreens at a minimum must exhibit:


Canada


Regulation of sunscreen is dependent on the ingredient used; It is then classified and follows the regulations for either natural health products or drug product. Companies must complete a product licensing application prior to introducing their sunscreen on the market. [ 163 ]


ASEAN (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam)


The regulation of sunscreen for ASEAN countries closely follows European regulations. However, products are regulated by the ASEAN scientific community rather than the SCCS. Additionally, there are minor differences in the allowed phrasing printed on sunscreen packages. [ 163 ]


Japan


Sunscreen is considered a cosmetic product, and is regulated under the Japan Cosmetic Industry Association (JCIA). Products are regulated mostly for the type of UV filter and SPF. SPF may range from 2 to 50. [ 163 ]


China


Sunscreen is regulated as cosmetic product under the State Food and Drug Administration (SFDA). The list of approved filters is the same as it is in Europe. However, sunscreen in China requires safety testing in animal studies prior to approval. [ 163 ]


Australia


Sunscreens are divided into therapeutic and cosmetic sunscreens. Therapeutic sunscreens are classified into primary sunscreens (SPF ≥ 4) and secondary sunscreens (SPF < 4).  Therapeutic sunscreens are regulated by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). Cosmetic sunscreens are products that contain a sunscreen ingredient, but do not protect from the sun. These products are regulated by the National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS). [ 163 ]


New Zealand


Sunscreen is classified as a cosmetic product, and closely follows EU regulations. However, New Zealand has a more extensive list of approved UV filters than Europe. [ 163 ]


Mercosur


Mercosur  is an international group consisting of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Regulation of sunscreen as a cosmetic product began in 2012, and is similar in structure to the European regulations. Sunscreens must meet specific standards including water resistance, sun protection factor, and a UVA/UVB ratio of 1/3. The list of approved sunscreen ingredients is greater than in Europe or the US. [ 163 ]


Some sunscreen active ingredients have been shown to cause toxicity towards marine life and coral, resulting in bans in different states, countries and ecological areas. [ 164 ] [ 165 ]  Coral reefs, comprising organisms in delicate ecological balances, are vulnerable to even minor environmental disturbances. Factors like temperature changes, invasive species, pollution, and detrimental fishing practices have previously been highlighted as threats to coral health. [ 166 ] [ 167 ]


In 2018, Hawaii passed legislation that prohibits the sale of sunscreens containing  oxybenzone  and  octinoxate . In sufficient concentrations, oxybenzone and octinoxate can damage coral DNA, induce deformities in coral  larvae , [ 165 ]  heighten the risk of viral infections, and make corals more vulnerable to bleaching. Such threats are even more concerning given that coral ecosystems are already compromised by climate change, pollution, and other environmental stressors. While there is ongoing debate regarding the real-world concentrations of these chemicals versus laboratory settings, [ 168 ] [ 169 ] [ 170 ] [ 171 ]  an assessment in Kahaluu Bay in Hawaii showed oxybenzone concentrations to be 262 times higher than what the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency designates as high-risk. Another study in Hanauma Bay found levels of the chemical ranging from 30 ng/L to 27,880 ng/L, noting that concentrations beyond 63 ng/L could induce toxicity in corals. [ 172 ]


Echoing Hawaii's initiative, other regions including Key West, Florida, [ 173 ]  the U.S. Virgin Islands, [ 174 ]  Bonaire, and Palau [ 175 ]  have also instituted bans on sunscreens containing oxybenzone and octinoxate.


The environmental implications of sunscreen usage on marine ecosystems are multi-faceted and vary in severity. In a 2015 study, titanium dioxide nanoparticles, when introduced to water and subjected to ultraviolet light, were shown to amplify the production of hydrogen peroxide, a compound known to damage phytoplankton. [ 176 ]  In 2002, research indicated that sunscreens might escalate virus abundance in seawater, compromising the marine environment in a manner akin to other pollutants. [ 177 ]  Further probing the matter, a 2008 investigation examining a variety of sunscreen brands, protective factors, and concentrations revealed unanimous bleaching effects on hard corals. Alarmingly, the degree of bleaching magnified with increasing sunscreen quantities. When assessing individual compounds prevalent in sunscreens, substances such as butylparaben, ethylhexylmethoxycinnamate, benzophenone-3, and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor induced complete coral bleaching at even minimal concentrations. [ 178 ]


A 2020 study from the journal  Current Dermatology Report  summarized the situation as the US FDA currently approving only zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) as safe ultraviolet filters, and for those concerned with coral bleaching, they should use non-nano ZnO or TiO 2  since they have the most consistent safety data. [ 179 ]


New products are in development such as sunscreens based on  bioadhesive  nanoparticles. These function by encapsulating commercially used UV filters, while being not only adherent to the skin but also non-penetrant. This strategy inhibits primary UV-induced damage as well as secondary free radicals. [ 180 ]  UV filters based on  sinapate   esters  are also under study. [ 181 ]  Sunscreens with natural and sustainable connotations are increasingly being developed, as a result of increased environmental concern. [ 182 ]


T-Beauty , or Taiwanese Beauty, refers to beauty products and routines associated with  Taiwan .


According to  NBC  "Taiwanese beauty movement focuses on a simple, holistic approach to skin care by using high-quality, natural ingredients and techniques rooted in traditional Chinese medicine." [ 1 ]  It is also influenced by Taiwan's warm climate with a resulting emphasis on hydrating and lightweight products. [ 2 ]


In general it includes four steps: cleanse, tone, moisturize and sheet mask. [ 1 ]


The Taiwanese cosmetics industry got its start doing contract manufacturing for Japanese firms like  Shiseido  and the  Kao Corporation . [ 1 ]


In the 2000s Taiwanese companies began exporting products under their own name. [ 1 ]  Early successful brands included My Beauty Diary, Annie's Way, and Maskingdom. [ 3 ]


Taiwan banned cosmetic testing on animals in 2016. [ 1 ]


In 2017 Taiwan exported $730 million worth of cosmetics. [ 1 ]


The Taiwan Beauty Alliance is an industry organizing group. [ 4 ]


Thanaka  ( Burmese :  သနပ်ခါး ;  MLCTS :  sa.nap hka: ;  pronounced   [θənəkʰá] ) is a paste made from ground bark. It is a distinctive feature of the culture of  Myanmar , seen commonly applied to the face and sometimes the arms of women and girls, and is used to a lesser extent also by men and boys. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Thanaka has been used by Burmese people since the mid-11th century. In a Bagan Pagoda, there is a Bagan era wall painting of a Bagan woman wearing thanaka. The earliest literary reference to thanakha is in a 14th-century poem written by  King Razadarit 's  Mon-speaking  consort. During King Bayinnaung, Alungpaya and Bodawpaya's military campaign in Thailand, thanakha was first introduced to Thai people. [ 4 ]  Mentions of thanaka also exist in the 15th-century literary works of Burmese monk-poet  Shin Raṭṭhasāra  (1486–1529). [ 4 ]


The wood of several trees may be used to produce thanaka cream; these trees grow abundantly in central Myanmar. They include principally  Murraya  spp. (thanaka) [ 2 ]  but also  Limonia acidissima  ( theethee  or wood apple). [ 5 ]  The two most popular are  Shwebo  thanaka  from  Sagaing Region  and  Shinmadaung thanaka  from  Magway Region . A more recent contender sold as a paste is  Taunggyi   Maukme thanaka  from southern  Shan State . Thanaka trees are  perennials , and a tree must be at least 35 years old before it is considered mature enough to yield good-quality cuttings. Thanaka in its natural state is sold as small logs individually or in bundles, but nowadays also available as a paste or in powder form.


Thanaka cream is made by grinding the bark, wood, or roots [ 2 ]  of a thanaka tree with a small amount of water [ 5 ]  on a circular slate slab called  kyauk pyin , [ 6 ]  which has a channel around the rim for the water to drain into.


Thanaka cream has been used by Burmese men, women, and children (especially women as make-up) for over 2,000 years. [ 6 ]  It has a fragrant scent somewhat similar to  sandalwood . [ 2 ] [ 7 ]  The creamy paste is applied to the face in attractive designs, the most common form being a circular patch on each cheek, nose, sometimes made stripey with the fingers known as  thanaka bè gya , or patterned in the shape of a leaf, often also highlighting the bridge of the nose with it at the same time. [ 6 ]  It may be applied from head to toe ( thanaka chi zoun gaung zoun ). Apart from cosmetic beauty, thanaka also gives a cooling sensation and provides protection from  sunburn . [ 1 ]  It is believed to help remove acne and promote smooth skin. [ 6 ]  It is also an anti-fungal. [ 2 ]   Marmesin  has been proposed to be the principle UV blocking agent. [ 8 ]  A study was conducted in 2010 by the  Chulalongkorn University  in  Bangkok  and the  University of London . Thanaka bark is antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and absorbs UV rays. The research additionally revealed that Thanaka inhibits  tyrosinase , the enzyme that triggers melanin synthesis and impacts pores and skin discolouration. [ 9 ]


Thujaplicin  ( isopropyl  cycloheptatrienolone) is any of three  isomeric   tropolone -related  natural products  that have been isolated from the  softwoods  of the trees of  Cupressaceae  family. [ 1 ]  These compounds are known for their antibacterial,  antifungal , and  antioxidant  properties. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  They were the first natural tropolones to be made synthetically. [ 4 ]


Thujaplicins were discovered in the mid-1930s and purified from the  heartwood  of  Thuja plicata  Donn ex D. Don , commonly called as Western red cedar tree. [ 5 ]  These compounds were also identified in the constituents of  Chamaecyparis obtusa , another species from the  Cupressaceae  family.  C. obtusa  is native to East Asian countries including  Japan  and  Taiwan , and is also known as  Taiwan hinoki , from which the β-thujaplicin was first isolated in 1936 and received its name,  hinokitiol . Thujaplicins were the first natural  tropolones  to be made synthetically, by  Ralph Raphael  and colleagues, and the β-thujaplicin was the first non-benzenoid aromatic compound identified, by  Tetsuo Nozoe  and colleagues. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  The resistance of the heartwood of the tree to  decay  was the main reason prompting to investigate its content and identify the compounds responsible for antimicrobial properties. [ 4 ]  β-thujaplicin gained more scientific interest beginning in the 2000s. [ 6 ]  Later, iron-binding activity of β-thujaplicin was discovered and the molecule has been ironically nicknamed as “Iron Man molecule”, [ 7 ]  because the first name of  Tetsuo Nozoe  can be translated into English as “Iron Man”. [ 6 ]


Tjujaplicins are found in the heartwood of the conifer trees belonging to the  Cupressaceae  family, including  Chamaecyparis obtusa  (Hinoki cypress),  Thuja plicata  (Western red cedar),  Thujopsis dolabrata  var.  hondai  (Hinoki asunaro),  Juniperus cedrus  (Canary Islands juniper),  Cedrus atlantica  (Atlas cedar),  Cupressus lusitanica  (Mexican white cedar),  Chamaecyparis lawsoniana  (Port Orford cedar),  Chamaecyparis taiwanensis  (Taiwan cypress),  Chamaecyparis thyoides  (Atlantic white cedar),  Cupressus arizonica  (Arizona cypress),  Cupressus macnabiana  (MacNab cypress),  Cupressus macrocarpa  (Monterey cypress),  Juniperus chinensis  (Chinese juniper),  Juniperus communis  (Common juniper),  Juniperus californica  (California juniper),  Juniperus occidentalis  (Western juniper),  Juniperus oxycedrus  (Cade),  Juniperus sabina  (Savin juniper),  Calocedrus decurrens  (California incense-cedar),  Calocedrus formosana  (Taiwan incense-cedar),  Platycladus orientalis  (Chinese thuja),  Thuja occidentalis  (Northern white-cedar),  Thuja standishii  (Japanese thuja),  Tetraclinis articulata  (Sandarac). [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ]


Thujaplicins can be produced in  plant cell suspension cultures , [ 12 ] [ 13 ]  or can be extracted from wood using  solvents  and  ultrasonication . [ 14 ]


Thujaplicins can be synthesized by  cycloaddition  of isopropyl cyclopentadiene  and dichloroketene,  1,3-dipolar cycloaddition  of 5-isopropyl-1-methyl-3-oxidopyridinium,  ring expansion  of 2-isopropylcyclohexanone, regiocontrolled  hydroxylation  of oxyallyl  (4+3) cycloadducts , from ( R )-(+)- limonene   regioselectively  by several steps, and from troponeirontricarbonyl complex by few steps. [ 15 ] [ 16 ]  The synthesis pathway of β-thujaplicin from troponeirontricarbonyl complex is found below:


The synthesis pathway of β-thujaplicin by electro-reductive alkylation of substituted cycloheptatrienes is shown below:


The synthesis pathway of β-thujaplicin through ring expansion of 2-isopropylcyclohexanone is shown below:


The synthesis pathway of β-thujaplicin through oxyallyl cation [4+3] cyclization (Noyori's synthesis) is shown below:


Thujaplicins belong to tropolones containing an unsaturated seven-membered carbon ring. Thujaplicins are  monoterpenoids  that are  cyclohepta-2,4,6-trien-1-one  substituted by a  hydroxy group  at position 2 and an  isopropyl group  at positions 3, 4 or 5. [ 17 ]  These compounds are  enols  and cyclic  ketones . They derive from a hydride of a  cyclohepta-1,3,5-triene . Thujaplicins are soluble in organic solvents and aqueous  buffers . Hinokitiol is soluble in  ethanol ,  dimethyl sulfoxide ,  dimethylformamide  with a solubility of 20, 30 and 12.5 mg/ml, respectively. [ 18 ]  β-thujaplicin provides acetone on vigorous oxidation and gives the saturated monocyclic diol upon catalytic hydrogenation. [ 19 ]  It is stable to alkali and acids, forming salts or remaining unchanged, but does not convert to catechol derivatives. The complexes made of iron and tropolones display high thermodynamic stability and has shown to have a stronger binding constant than the transferrin-iron complex. [ 20 ]


There are three  isomers  of thujaplicin, with the  isopropyl group  positioned progressively further from the two oxygen atoms around the ring: α-thujaplicin, β-thujaplicin, and γ-thujaplicin. [ 4 ]   β-Thujaplicin, also called  hinokitiol , is the most common in nature. [ 21 ]  Each exists in two  tautomeric  forms, swapping the  hydroxyl  hydrogen to the other oxygen, meaning the two oxygen  substituents  do not have distinct "carbonyl" vs "hydroxyl" identities. The extent of this exchange is that the  tropolone  ring is  aromatic  with an overall cationic nature, and the oxygen–hydrogen–oxygen region has an anionic nature. [ citation needed ]


Thujaplicins are shown to act against  Reticulitermes speratus  (Japanese termites),  Coptotermes formosanus  (super termites),  Dermatophagoides farinae  (dust mites),  Tyrophagus putrescentiae  (mould mites),  Callosobruchus chinensis  (adzuki bean weevil),  Lasioderma serricorne  (cigarette beetle). [ 9 ] [ 22 ] [ 11 ]


Hinokitiol has also shown some larvicidal activities against  Aedes aegypti  (yellow fever mosquito) and  Culex pipiens  (common house mosquito), and anti-plasmodial activities against  Plasmodium falciparum  and  Plasmodium berghei . [ 11 ]


Thujaplicins, as other tropolones, demonstrate  chelating  activity, acting as an  ionophore  by binding different metal ions. [ 23 ]


Tropolone  and thujaplicins exhibit potent suppressive activity on  enzymatic browning  due to inhibition of  polyphenol oxidase  and  tyrosinase . This have been shown in experiments on different vegetables, fruits, mushrooms, plants and other agricultural products. [ 11 ]  Prevention of darkening has also been elicited on  seafood  products. [ 24 ]


Owing to their antibacterial activities against various microbes colonizing and affecting the skin, thujaplicins, including also  thujaplicinol , are used in skin care and hair growth products, [ 25 ]  and are especially popular in Eastern Asia. [ citation needed ]


Hinokitiol is used in various oral care products, including  toothpastes  and oral sprays. [ 25 ] [ 26 ]


Due to its antifungal activity against  Malassezia pachydermatis , it is used in eardrop formulations for  external otitis  in dogs. [ 27 ] [ 28 ]


Considering their antifungal activity against many plant-pathogenic  fungi , and  pesticidal  and  insecticidal  properties, the role of thujaplicins in agriculture is evolving, including their use in the management of different plant diseases and for controlling the  postharvest decay . [ 9 ] [ 29 ]


Thujaplicins are used as food additives in Japan. [ 30 ]  Due to its suppressive activity on  food browning  and the inhibitory activity against bacteria and fungi causing  food spoilage  (such as  Clostridium perfringens ,  Alternaria alternata ,  Aspergillus niger ,  Botrytis cinerea ,  Fusobacterium  species,  Monilinia fructicola  and  Rhizopus stolonifer ), hinokitiol is also used in  food packaging  as a  shelf-life  extending agent. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ]   Thujaplicinol , a tropolone, is also used in Japan as a food additive in small amount.


In  cosmetics ,  skin toner  or simply  toner  refers to a water-based  lotion ,  tonic , or wash designed to cleanse the skin and prepare it for other skincare products, such as  moisturizers  and serums. [ 1 ]  Typically used on the face, toners remove any remaining impurities after cleansing, balance the skin’s pH, and hydrate the skin. [ 2 ]  They also serve to protect and refresh the skin, [ 3 ]  often containing ingredients that can soothe, moisturize, exfoliate, or target specific skin concerns like oil control or pore minimization. [ 4 ]  Toners are typically categorized by their function and intensity into types such as skin bracers, tonics, acid toners, and astringents.


Toners can be applied to the skin in different ways:


The use of toners in skincare emerged in the early 20th century as a response to the limitations of harsh,  alkaline , soap-based facial cleansers. [ 5 ]  These early cleansers, while effective in removing dirt and oil, were often harsh on the skin. They could disrupt the skin's natural pH balance, leaving behind a scum or residue that made the skin feel dry and irritated. [ 6 ]  Toners were developed as a solution aimed at restoring the skin's natural acidity. Initially, they were primarily formulated with  astringent  ingredients, such as alcohol and witch hazel. [ 6 ]


In the late 1960s, toners became more popular as the 'cleanse, tone, moisturize' routine emerged as the first skincare regimen to undergo  clinical testing . [ 7 ]  Over time, it became clear that alcohol-based  astringents , while effective in treating oily skin, [ 8 ]  were too harsh for many skin types and caused excess drying and irritation. As a result, skincare brands began formulating gentler toners focused on soothing and hydrating the skin. [ 6 ]  Ingredients like herbal extracts, floral waters, and  aloe vera  were introduced, allowing toners to balance the skin without stripping it of moisture. [ 9 ]


Today, toners are diverse and cater to a wide range of skincare needs, including hydration,  exfoliation , and  antioxidant  protection. In recent years, the clean beauty movement has influenced the formulation of toners, leading to a focus on organic and natural ingredients that avoid synthetic chemicals known to irritate sensitive skin. [ 10 ]  Current beauty trends centered around skincare have increased awareness and demand for toner, contributing to an increasing market size and sales volume for skin toner globally. [ 11 ]


These are the mildest form of toners; [ 12 ]  they contain water and a  humectant  such as  glycerin , and little if any  alcohol  (0–10%).  Humectants help to keep the moisture in the upper layers of the  epidermis  by preventing it from  evaporating .  A popular example of this is  rosewater .


These toners are the gentlest to the skin, and are most suitable for use on dry, dehydrated, sensitive and normal skins.  It may give a burning sensation to  sensitive skin .


These are slightly stronger and contain a small quantity of alcohol (up to 20%), water and a  humectant  ingredient.   Orange flower water  is an example of a skin tonic.  Skin tonics are suitable for use on normal, combination, and oily skin.


These are a strong form of toner that typically contains  alpha hydroxy acid  and or  beta hydroxy acid . Acid toners are formulated with the intent of chemically exfoliating the skin. [ 13 ]  Glycolic, lactic, and mandelic acids are the most commonly used  alpha hydroxy acids , best suited to exfoliate the surface of the skin. Salicylic acid is the most commonly used  beta hydroxy acid  best for exfoliating into the deeper layers of the skin.


These are the strongest form of toner and contain a high proportion of alcohol (20–60%), antiseptic ingredients, water, and a humectant ingredient.  These can be irritating and damaging to the skin as they can remove excess protective lipids as well as denature proteins in the skin when a high percentage of alcohol is used.


Common ingredients found in toners include:


Different toners are formulated with a variety of active ingredients tailored to address specific skin concerns, resulting in varying outcomes. Users can select toners based on their individual skincare needs and preferences. [ 2 ]


Uguisu no fun  ( 鶯の糞 , literally meaning "nightingale faeces" in  Japanese ) , also called the "Geisha Facial", [ 1 ]  refers to the  excrement  ( fun ) produced by a particular  nightingale , the  Japanese bush warbler  ( uguisu ). [ 1 ]  The droppings have been used in  facials  throughout  Japanese history . [ 1 ]  Recently, the product has appeared in the  Western world . [ 1 ]  The facial is said to whiten the skin and balance  skin tone , [ clarification needed ]  as well as treat skin affected by  hyperpigmentation . [ 2 ]


The use of nightingale excrement dates back to the  Heian period  (794–1185) when it was introduced to the  Japanese  by the  Korean people . [ 1 ] [ 3 ]  Koreans used the  guano  to remove  dye  from fabric, allowing them to make intricate designs on clothing. [ 1 ] [ 3 ]  The Japanese used the bird droppings to remove stains from  silk  garments such as  kimono . [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  During the  Edo period  (1603–1868), the Japanese expanded its use by using it as a beauty treatment. [ 3 ]   Geisha  and  kabuki  actors used white makeup known as  oshiroi  that contained  zinc  and  lead , which likely caused many issues such as skin diseases. [ 1 ] [ 6 ]   Uguisu no fun  was used to thoroughly remove this makeup and to whiten the skin. [ 1 ] [ 4 ]   Buddhist monks  also used the droppings to polish and clean their bald scalps. [ 1 ] [ 3 ]


The first modern written mention of the use of  uguisu no fun  is in a book entitled  Shunkin-sho  ( Portrait of Lady Shunkin ), published in 1933 by  Jun'ichirō Tanizaki , set in Japan's  Meiji period  (1868–1912).


Currently, Hyakusuke is the last shop in  Tokyo  to sell government-approved  uguisu no fun . [ 7 ]  This 200 year-old cosmetic shop carries the powder along with other cosmetic products. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


The modern-day revival of  uguisu no fun  in Japan [ clarification needed ]  may be attributed to a respect for ancestral traditions as well as to the innovative  culture of Japan . [ citation needed ]


Uguisu no fun  is harvested in nightingale  farms  in Japan. [ 1 ]  Though wild nightingales eat  insects  and  berries , the diet of the caged birds consists of  organic   seeds . [ 1 ] [ 9 ]  Some nightingales feed on  caterpillars  that eat from  plum  trees. [ 5 ]  The guano is scraped from the cages, and an  ultraviolet  light is often used to kill the  bacteria  to sanitize it. [ 1 ] [ 9 ]  The droppings are then usually dried with a dehydrator. [ 1 ]  Some are sun-dried for over two weeks while simultaneously being  UV sterilized . Next, it is ground into a fine white powder, and it is sold in this form. [ 1 ]


Rice bran  is sometimes added to the guano for the purpose of  exfoliation . [ 1 ]  The powder is mixed with water, yielding a paste, before being massaged into the skin for a few minutes and then being rinsed off. [ 1 ]  The facial is usually rather odorless and sanitized. [ 1 ] [ 5 ]  The added rice bran can also neutralize the slight  musky  odor. [ 10 ]


In one  New York   spa  that offers the application of  ugisu no fun , the process takes about one hour and costs $180. [ 6 ]


The way the facial works is not entirely clear. [ 4 ]  The guano from the nightingale has a high concentration of  urea  and  guanine . [ 1 ]  Because birds excrete a fecal and urine waste from a single opening, called the  cloaca , the fecal-urine combination gives the droppings a high concentration of urea. [ 1 ] [ 4 ]  Urea is sometimes found in cosmetics because it locks moisture into the skin. [ 1 ] [ 4 ]  The guanine may produce shimmery,  iridescent  effects on the skin. [ 1 ] [ 6 ]  It is claimed that because of the short  intestine  of the nightingale, the droppings have  protein , a fat-degrading  enzyme , and a whitening enzyme that acts on  fat  and  scurf  to whiten skin and even out blemishes.


Numerous sources comment that "the  amino acid  guanine" gives  uguisu no fun  its cosmetic properties, though guanine is a  nucleotide  base, not an amino acid. [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 10 ]


Victoria Beckham , who has long suffered with  acne , has used  uguisu no fun  to improve her skin. It was reported that Beckham admired the clarity of the skin of Japanese women and subsequently learned about the droppings. [ 9 ]


In the novel  Memoirs of a Geisha , the character Chiyo repays Hatsumomo's cruelty by mixing pigeon droppings with her face cream that contained  unguent  of nightingale droppings. [ 11 ]


In the 2012 movie  Mirror Mirror , based on the fairytale  Snow White , the evil queen, played by  Julia Roberts , undergoes extreme beauty treatments in order to woo a prince. The treatment begins with an application of bird droppings to her face.


Vinotherapy , also written "Vinotherapie", describes a beauty therapy process where the residue of  wine making  (the pips and pulp) are rubbed into the skin. The pulp is claimed to have  exfoliating  qualities and to help reduce the signs of ageing.


The concept of vinotherapy was expanded by Mathilde and Bertrand Thomas. The French couple learned about the impact of grape seeds from the leading expert on grape and grapevine polyphenols Dr. Vercauteren. [ 1 ]


In 1995, Mathilde and Bertrand launched a line of Vinothérapie skincare products made from grape derived ingredients:  Caudalie .


Vinotherapie makes use of the grape and the vine extracts to provide skincare treatments, with claimed anti-ageing action. Caudalíe was the first to stabilized and patent the extraction of Grape Seed  Polyphenols  (OPC), and use them in dermocosmetics.


There is a "Vinothérapie" spa hotel at  La Rioja  in Spain. [ 2 ]


This  wine -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


The  American Journal of Clinical Dermatology  (Am J Clin Dermatol) is a bimonthly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  published by  Springer Nature . The  American Journal of Clinical Dermatology  promotes evidence-based therapy and effective patient management within the discipline of dermatology by publishing critical and comprehensive review articles and clinically focussed original research articles covering all aspects of the management of dermatological conditions. The  editor-in-chief  is Kathy Fraser.


The journal is included in  Index Medicus  ( MEDLINE ) [ 1 ]  and  EMBASE. [ 2 ]


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , [ 3 ]  the journal has a 2023 impact factor of 8.6.


Annales des Maladies de la Peau et de la Syphilis  was a French  medical journal  established in 1843 by  Pierre Cazenave . In 1844 it published the first account of  pemphigus foliaceus , written by Cazenave. Most issues were his works and its contents reflect a summary of his career in general.


The journal's final years saw papers describing several experiments on syphilis, including one where Cazenave claimed to have inoculated himself with the disease. Contributions also came from  William Wallace ,  Philippe Ricord , and  Vidal de Cassis .


The journal ceased publication in 1852.


Annales des Maladies de la Peau et de la Syphilis  was established in 1843 by the French  dermatologist   Pierre Louis Alphée Cazenave , who had trained under  Jean-Louis Marie Alibert  at the  Hôpital Saint-Louis . [ 1 ]  It focussed on skin diseases and  syphilis . [ 1 ]


The second dermatological journal, it was released five years after  Syphilidologie ; both combined the specialties of  dermatology  and  venereology . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  At the time, Cazenave was  professor  of medicine at the  Hôpital Saint-Louis , where he used his observations to publish in the journal. [ 4 ]


Cazenave wrote most of the text himself and its contents reflect a summary of his career in general. [ 1 ]  Sometimes he used a different name as authorship. [ 5 ]  He published the first account of  pemphigus foliaceus  in the journal in 1844. [ 1 ]  In it he also wrote on  lupus erythematosus . [ 6 ]


The early 1850s saw the appearance of several reports on "syphilization". [ 7 ]  In his article titled "Observations. Syphilide tuberculeuse. Ecthyma syphilitique. Périostoses. Inoculation avec succès du symptôme secondaire," (1850-1851) Cazenave claimed to have inoculated himself with syphilis. [ 7 ]  It received little attention unlike the experiments of  Johann von Waller  in "Du caractère contagieux de la syphilis secondaire," (1850-1851), which gave the account of infecting several children using pus from presumed cases of secondary syphilis. [ 7 ]


In a later issue, the 1830s experiments by Dublin's  William Wallace  and  Lourcine's   Henri Bouley  appeared in an article titled "De la contagion, par voie d'inoculation artificielle, des accidents consécutifs de la syphilis". [ 7 ]  A detailed account of how Bouley re-infected a woman with syphilis appeared in the November 1851 issue. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ a ]


The journal ceased publication in 1852. [ 2 ] [ 12 ]


Archives of Dermatological Research , published by  Springer Science+Business Media , is a  peer-reviewed   medical journal  that focuses on  skin disease . It was established as the  Archiv für Dermatologie und Syphilis  in 1869 by  Heinrich Auspitz  and  Philipp Josef Pick . Springer acquired the journal in 1921 and renamed it the  Archiv für klinische und experimentelle Dermatologie und Syphilis . In the 1950s it followed the general trend to drop its link to  sexually transmitted infections  in its title. It became the  Archiv für Dermatologische Forschung  in 1971 before obtaining its current name in 1975.


Other past editors have included  Albert Neisser ,  Josef Jadassohn ,  Erich Hoffmann , and  Enno Christophers . Its current  editor-in-chief  is  Murad Alam  ( Northwestern University ).


The  Archives of Dermatological Research  is a dermatological journal, published by  Springer Science+Business Media . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  The editor-in-chief is Murad Alam (Northwestern University). [ 1 ]


In mid-19th century German-speaking parts of Europe, the specialties of  venereology  and  dermatology  were beginning to be associated with each other, particularly as  syphilis  presented with signs and symptoms in skin. [ 3 ] [ a ]  As a result, in 1869, the Austrian dermatologists  Heinrich Auspitz  and  Philipp Josef Pick  established the  Archiv für Dermatologie und Syphilis . [ 3 ] [ 5 ]  A significant amount of work involved syphilis so it was included in the title. [ 6 ]  It was published in German, in Prague. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]  In 1874 it changed to being published four times a year under the name  Vierteljahresschrift fur Dermatologie und Syphilis , and returned to its original name in 1889. [ 9 ]  Auspitz and Pick both co-edited the journal until Auspitz's death in 1886, after which Pick carried on with it. [ 10 ]  Other early co-editors included  Albert Neisser . [ 11 ]  The Japanese dermatologist  Keizo Dohi  published his first paper in the journal in German. [ 12 ]


Springer-Verlag  took over the journal's publishing in 1921, when it became the  Archiv für klinische und experimentelle Dermatologie und Syphilis . [ 13 ]  For the next 52 years it was an official publication for the  Deutsche Dermatologische Gesellschaft . [ 14 ]  Issues were suspended in 1944 after Volume 185. [ 15 ]  Its publication recommenced in 1948 with Volume 186, its editors then being Erich Hoffmann, Georg Alexander Rost, and Fritz Hussels. [ 15 ]


By the mid-1950s, following the widespread availability of  penicillin  to treat syphilis, the disease appeared to be under control and considered by dermatologists to no longer be a concern. [ 9 ]  Subsequently, dermatologists found a way of separating themselves from  sexually transmitted infections  and the unpopular specialty of venereology. [ 9 ]  In 1955, links to sexually transmitted infection including syphilis were dropped from the titles of several journals including the  Archiv für klinische und experimentelle Dermatologie und Syphilis , which was renamed  Archiv für klinische und experimentelle Dermatologie . [ 9 ] [ 14 ]  In the same year the  American Medical Association (AMA) Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology  also dropped syphilis and became  AMA Archives of Dermatology , and the  Indian Journal of Dermatology and Venereology  removed venerology from its title to form the  Indian Journal of Dermatology . [ 9 ]


Between 1970 and 1975 the journal was renamed the  Archiv für Dermatologische Forschung . [ 13 ]   Enno Christophers  became its editor in 1971 and continued in that post when in 1975 the journal became the  Archives of Dermatological Research . [ 13 ] [ 14 ]


Former editors include:


The journal is abstracted and indexed in:


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2022  impact factor  of 3.0. [ 23 ]


The  British Journal of Dermatology  is a monthly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  that covers the field of  dermatology . It is published by  Wiley-Blackwell  on behalf of the  British Association of Dermatologists . The journal was established in 1888 and the  editor-in-chief  is John Ingram. According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2020  impact factor  of 9.3., [ 1 ]  ranked third within the dermatology subject category.


The journal was founded in 1888 as the  British Journal of Dermatology , published by Blackwell’s. [ 2 ]  It was edited from 1896 to 1904 by  Sir James Galloway . [ 3 ]  In 1917, the words "and syphilis" were added to the title, and dropped in 1950. [ 2 ]


Clinical and Experimental Dermatology  is a  peer-reviewed   medical journal  provide relevant and educational material for practising clinicians and dermatological researchers. The journal is published by  Wiley . [ 1 ]


The journal is abstracted and indexed in: [ 1 ]


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2020  impact factor  of 3.470. [ 2 ]


Clinics in Dermatology  is a  medical journal  published for the  International Academy of Cosmetic Dermatology  by  Elsevier , addressing clinical treatment and care of  skin disorders . According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014  impact factor  of 2.470. [ 1 ]


Dermatologic Clinics  is a  peer-reviewed   medical journal  published quarterly for the Dermatologic Clinics of North America by  Elsevier . It has been published since 1983.


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2017  impact factor  of 3.214. [ 1 ]


Dermatologic Surgery  is a monthly peer-reviewed journal that deals with the subject matter of dermatology. The journal is published by  American Society for Dermatologic Surgery ,  Lippincott ,  Williams & Wilkins
According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2022  impact factor  of 2.4.


This article about a  surgery   journal  is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Dermatology  is a  peer-reviewed   medical journal  published by  Karger Publishers . It was established in 1893 as the  Dermatologische Zeitschrift  and was renamed  Dermatologica  in 1939. It obtained its current name in 1993. The founding  editor-in-chief  was  Oskar Lassar . Other notable editors were  Wilhelm Lutz   (1939–1958) and  Rudolf Schuppli  (1959–1985). It was the official journal of the  Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Dermatologie und Venere  and the  Belgian Society for Dermatology and Syphiligraphy . According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2019  impact factor  of 3.695. [ 1 ]


The  Dermatology Online Journal  is a monthly  open-access   peer-reviewed   medical journal  that was established in 1995 by Arthur Huntley (Department of Dermatology,  University of California, Davis ). [ 1 ]  It is published by the  California Digital Library  and covers all aspects of general  dermatology . The current  editor-in-chief  is Barbara Burrall (University of California Davis).


Besides medical information, the journal provides medical perspectives on non-medical topics [ 2 ]  and the  Dermatology Online Journal  published the first dermatology training program ranking. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


The journal is indexed in  PubMed , [ 5 ]   MEDLINE , [ 5 ]  and  Scopus . [ 6 ] [ 7 ]


Dr Mark Duffill


DermNet  is a worldwide clinical resource website about  dermatology  and skin conditions. [ 1 ]  Its co-founder and former editor-in-chief is dermatologist and Adjunct Associate Professor  Amanda Oakley . [ 2 ]  The website was launched in 1996 under the umbrella of the  New Zealand Dermatological Society , and as of 2017, around 2 million people access the website monthly. [ 3 ]


The purpose of DermNet is to provide authoritative information about skin diseases, conditions and treatments for dermatologists, students and medical researchers. The website has been praised for articles on little represented conditions, such as hyperhidrosis. [ 4 ]  As of November 2017, there are 2,300 pages and a library of 25,000 dermatology and dermatopathology images on the website. [ 5 ]  Pages and images are contributed and reviewed by health professionals from countries including the United States, the  United Kingdom ,  Australia , Canada, and New Zealand. [ 6 ]  The website also provides online medical courses for the continuing education of dermatologists.


In 2017, DermNet released its first book,  Dermatology Made Easy . [ 7 ]


DermNet also provides an interactive tool, DermDiag, which allows users to assess their own skin conditions. The tool allows the user to input increasingly specific levels of information regarding their condition, starting from location of ailment, up to number of blemishes, and provides the user with potential diagnoses. The provided diagnoses are ranked from COMMON to RARE, and images of each potential diagnosis are provided to the user, along with clinical features of each condition. [ 8 ]


DermNet won the 2017 New Zealand Ministry of Health Clinician's Challenge Award for the development of a skin disease image recognition tool. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]


In 2017, Oakley won the Lifetime Achievement Award at the New Zealand Charity Technology Awards for her tenure as creator and editor-in-chief of the website. [ 11 ]


In 2018, Oakley was awarded the New Zealand Order of Merit for services to dermatology as part of the Queen's Birthday Honours List. [ 12 ]


Expert Review of Dermatology  was a bimonthly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  covering all aspects of  dermatology . [ citation needed ]  It was established in 2001 and ceased publication in 2013. It was published by  Informa  and abstracted and indexed in  Scopus . [ 1 ]


The  Indian Journal of Dermatology  is a bimonthly  peer-reviewed   open-access   medical journal  published on behalf of the  Indian Association of Dermatologists, Venereologists and Leprologists , West Bengal Branch. The journal covers clinical and experimental  dermatology , cutaneous biology, dermatological therapeutics, cosmetic dermatology,  dermatopathology , and dermatosurgery. [ citation needed ]


It was established in 1955. [ 1 ]


The  Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology  is a  peer-reviewed   open-access   medical journal  published by  Scientific Scholar   on behalf of the  Indian Association of Dermatologists, Venereologists and Leprologists . The journal covers clinical and experimental  dermatology , cutaneous biology, dermatological therapeutics, cosmetic dermatology,  dermatopathology , dermatosurgery, pediatric dermatology, photodermatology, and  HIV  medicine.


The journal is indexed in Abstracts on Hygiene and Communicable Diseases, Bioline International,  CAB Abstracts ,  CINAHL ,  EBSCO ,  Excerpta Medica / EMBASE , Expanded Academic ASAP, Global Health, Health & Wellness Research Center, Health Reference Center Academic, IndMed,  MEDLINE / Index Medicus ,  SafetyLit ,  Science Citation Index Expanded ,  Scopus , SIIC databases, Tropical Diseases Bulletin, and  Ulrich's Periodicals Directory .


The  International Journal of Dermatology  is a  peer-reviewed  monthly journal covering all aspects of  dermatology . According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2022  impact factor  of 3.6. [ 1 ]  The journal is indexed in  Current Contents ,  Index Medicus , and the  Science Citation Index . [ 2 ]


JAMA Dermatology  is a monthly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  published by the  American Medical Association . [ 1 ]  It covers the effectiveness of  diagnosis  and treatment in medical and surgical  dermatology ,  pediatric  and  geriatric  dermatology, and  oncologic  and  aesthetic  dermatologic  surgery .


The journal was established in the  Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology  (1920–1950), continuing as the  A.M.A. Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology  (1950–1954), then  A.M.A. Archives of Dermatology  (1955–1960), then  Archives of Dermatology  (1960–2012), obtaining its current name in January 2013. According to  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2021  impact factor  of 11.816, ranking it 2nd out of 69 journals in the category "Dermatology". [ 2 ]  The  editor-in-chief  is Kanade Shinkai ( University of California, San Francisco ).


The journal is abstracted and indexed in  Index Medicus / MEDLINE / PubMed . [ 3 ]


The  Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology  is a quarterly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  published by  Wiley-Blackwell . It is the official journal of the  International Academy of Cosmetic Dermatology  and covers all aspects of cosmetic  dermatology . The  editor-in-chief  is Zoe Diana Draelos. The journal was established in 2002. According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014  impact factor  of 0.876. [ 1 ]


The  Journal of Cutaneous and Aesthetic Surgery  is a triannual  peer-reviewed   open-access   medical journal  published by  Medknow Publications  on behalf of the  Association of Cutaneous Surgeons of India . It covers research on  skin surgery  and  aesthetic surgery . The  editor-in-chief  is  Imran Majid ( Shri Maharaja Hari Singh Hospital ), who succeeded Niti Khunger ( Vardhman Mahavir Medical College ).


The journal is abstracted and indexed in  EBSCO databases ,  Expanded Academic ASAP , and  Scopus . [ 1 ]


The  Journal of Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery  (abbreviated  JCMS ) is a bimonthly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  covering  dermatology . It was established in 1996 and is published by  SAGE Publications  in collaboration with the Canadian Dermatology Association, of which it is the official journal. [ 1 ]  The  editor-in-chief  is Kirk Barber ( University of Calgary ). According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2020  impact factor  of 2.092, ranking it 46th out of 69 journals in the category "Dermatology". [ 2 ]


Journal of Dermatological Science  is a  medical journal  that covers the entire scope of dermatology, from molecular studies to clinical investigations. The journal is published by  Elsevier . [ 1 ]


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2021  impact factor  of 5.408. [ 2 ]


The  Journal of Dermatological Treatment  is a bimonthly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  that covers all aspects of the treatment of  skin disease , including the use of topical and systematically administered drugs and other forms of therapy. It is published by  Informa Healthcare  and the  editors-in-chief  are Peter van de Kerkhof ( Radboud University Nijmegen ) and Steven R. Feldman ( Wake Forest University School of Medicine ). The journal is available online and in paper format.


The journal was established in June 1989 in Cardiff, UK, by the co-founding editors, Ronald Marks and Andrew Y Finlay, [ 1 ]  published jointly by Martin Dunitz Ltd and The Macmillan Press Ltd. The journal was edited by Marks and Finlay until the September 1997 issue of Volume 8. From the December 1997 issue the editorship passed to  Chris Griffiths  and Jean-Paul Ortonne. [ 2 ]  In January 2004 Richard Groves and Steven R Feldman became editors.  From 2008 the editors have been Steven R Feldman and Peter van de Kerkhof.


The journal was published four times each year from its foundation in 1989 until 2003. From 2004 six issues have been published each year.


The  Journal of Dermatology  is a  peer-reviewed   medical journal  covering  dermatology  published by the  Japanese Dermatological Association  (日本皮膚科学会  Nihon Hifuka Gakkai ) and the  Asian Dermatological Association . Its 2014  impact factor  is 2.252. [ 1 ]


The  Journal of Drugs in Dermatology  is a monthly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  of  dermatology  published by Sanovaworks. The journal was established in 2002 by  Mohs surgeon   Perry Robins , founder of the  Skin Cancer Foundation . It is the flagship publication of Sanovaworks, publisher of  Derm-in-Review  and  Next Steps , as well as the sponsor of  JDD Podcasts  and two annual medical specialty conferences, Skin of Color Update (SOCU), and the ODAC Dermatology Aesthetic and Surgical (ODAC) conferences.


The following persons have been co- editor-in-chief  of the journal:


The journal is  abstracted and indexed  in the following  bibliographic databases : [ 1 ]


The journal was accepted into the  Science Citation Index [ 5 ]  in 2003 and received an  impact factor  in 2004. [ 6 ]  According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2019  impact factor  of 1.464. [ 7 ]


The  Journal of Investigative Dermatology  is a  peer-reviewed   medical journal  covering  dermatology . It has been published by  Elsevier  since 2016 and the  editor-in-chief  is Erwin Tschachler ( University of Vienna ). [ 1 ]


In 1972, it absorbed the journal  Advances in Biology of Skin , also known as the  Proceedings of the Brown University Symposium on the Biology of Skin .


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2023  impact factor  of 5.7. [ 9 ]


The  Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology , sometimes abbreviated  JAAD , is a monthly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  covering  dermatology . It was established in 1979 and is published by  Elsevier  on behalf of the  American Academy of Dermatology , of which it is the official journal. [ 1 ]  The  editor-in-chief  is Dirk Elston ( Medical University of South Carolina ). According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2017  impact factor  of 6.898. [ 2 ]


JAAD has a companion journal focusing on  case reports  called  JAAD Case Reports . [ citation needed ]


The  Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology  is the official journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. The journal is  peer-reviewed  monthly that publishes articles of general and practical interest in the field of  dermatology  and  venereology  on clinical and basic science topics, as well as research with practical implications. According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2022  impact factor  of 9.2. [ 1 ]


The  Journal of Tissue Viability  is a quarterly  peer-reviewed   medical journal  covering all aspects of the occurrence and treatment of  wounds ,  ulcers , and  pressure sores . It is published by  Elsevier .


The journal was established in 1991 with P Shakespeare as its founding  editor-in-chief . It is the official publication of the  Tissue Viability Society  and its current editor-in-chief is Dan Bader ( University of Southampton ).


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2017  impact factor  of 1.925. [ 1 ]


Pediatric Dermatology  is a  peer-reviewed   medical journal  provide relevant and educational material for practising clinicians and dermatological researchers, focused on hemangiomas, atopic dermatitis, neonatal medicine etc. The journal is published by  Wiley . [ 1 ]


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2020  impact factor  of 1.997. [ 2 ]


Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine  is a  peer-reviewed   scientific journal  published bimonthly by  Wiley-Blackwell  which focusses, as its title implies, on photodermatology, photoimmunology and  photomedicine . Warwick L. Morison is  editor-in-chief . It is the official journal of the  Photomedicine Society , the  British Photodermatology Group , and the  European Society for Photodermatology .


Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine  has been published since 1985. [ 1 ]  The founding editors were Christer Jansén and Gören Wennersten, [ 2 ]  other past editors in chief have been Henry Wan-Peng Lim. [ 3 ]  and Paul R. Bergstresser. [ 4 ]


In 2008 the European Society for Photodermatology voted to make  Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine  its official journal. [ 5 ]


Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine  is abstracted and indexed in  Academic Search ,  Biological Abstracts ,  BIOSIS Previews ,  Current Contents /Clinical Medicine,  CSA Biological Sciences Database , Immunological Abstracts,  EMBASE ,  Journal Citation Reports ,  MEDLINE / PubMed , Research Alert, and the  Science Citation Index . According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014  impact factor  of 1.259, ranking it 40th out of 63 journals in the category "Dermatology". [ 1 ]


Skin Pharmacology and Physiology  is a  peer-reviewed   medical journal  and an official journal of the Society for Dermopharmacy / Gesellschaft für Dermopharmazie e.V. (GD). [ 1 ]  It was established in 1988 under the title  Skin Pharmacology , renamed to  Skin Pharmacology and Applied Skin Physiology  in 1998, and obtained its current title in 2003. [ 2 ]


According to the  Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014  impact factor  of 2.366. [ 3 ]


This article about a  pharmacology   journal  is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Syphilidologie  was a medical journal first created in 1838 in Leipzig by  Friedrich Jacob Behrend . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


This is a  list of dermatologists  who have made notable contributions to the field of  dermatology .


Carl Heinrich Auspitz  (2 September 1835 in  Nikolsburg ,  Moravia  – 22 May 1886 in  Vienna ) was a  Jewish [ 1 ]   Austrian   dermatologist . He was the husband of pianist  Auguste Auspitz-Kólar  (1843–1878). [ 2 ]


He was a member of the famous Moravian-Austrian  Auspitz Family  [ de ] . Heinrich was a son of Jewish surgeon  Moritz  [ de ]  (1803, Nikolsburg – 1880). His younger brother  Leopold  [ de ]  (1838, Nikolsburg – 1907) was an Imperial & Royal  Generalmajor  and writer. In 1840, Moritz was given a job at a Jewish hospital in Vienna, and allowed better education to his sons.


Trained at the  University of Vienna , he specialized in dermatology and  syphilis . He was part of the so-called  Vienna School of Dermatology , and studied and worked with several eminent physicians of the time;  Ernst Wilhelm (Ritter von) Brücke  (1819, Berlin – 1892),  Karel  (Carl)  Freiherr von Rokytanský  (1804, Bohemia – 1878),  Josef Škoda  (1805, Bohemia –1881),  Johann Ritter von Oppolzer  (1808, Bohemia – 1871), and  Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra  (1816, Moravia –1880).


In 1863 he became a  privat-docent  of dermatology and syphilis, and during the following year began work in the  histological  institute of  Carl Wedl . [ 2 ]  In 1872 he was named director of the general policlinic, and from 1875 onward, was an associate professor at the  university .


A pioneer in  tissue   pathology , he described the pinpoint  bleeding  on removal of a  psoriasis  scale that bears his name: " Auspitz's sign ". [ 3 ]  In 1885 he published an article involving  mycosis fungoides  titled " Ein Fall von Granuloma fungoides (Mycosis fungoides Alibert) ". [ 4 ]


Together with  Philipp Josef Pick  (1834-1910), he founded first German-language magazine for dermatology, the " Archiv für Dermatologie und Syphilis " (1869). In 1882 he became a member of the  German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina . In May 1886 he died from a heart condition, and was interred in the  Wiener Zentralfriedhof . [ 2 ]


Since 2005, the "Heinrich Auspitz Preis" has been awarded by the  Wyeth and Pfizer Corporation Austria  in order to promote scientific research in the field of dermatology. [ 5 ]


Bernard Wolff Beffie  (18 May 1872 – 2 July 1943) was a Dutch  dermatologist  and  chess  player,  unofficial Dutch Chess Championship  winner (1906).


Beffie was a son of Isaac Wolff, who had the name Beffie added to his family name in 1877. The parental family consisted of ten children: seven boys and three girls. Bernard Wolff Beffie was born in Amsterdam on 18 May 1872. He was married to Dirkje Johanna Kuiper, who died in 1938. The couple had no children and lived at Amsterdam. Beffie studied medicine in his hometown, where he took his medical exam on 26 February 1900. He specialized in  dermatology  and  sexually transmitted infection .


Beffie was also a member of the United Amsterdam Chess Society. In 1906, in  Arnhem  he won the  unofficial Dutch Chess Championship . During the raid on 20 June 1943, he fell into the hands of the  SD . On 2 July 1943 he was murdered in the Sobibor extermination camp. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


This biographical article relating to a Dutch chess figure is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Iwan Bloch  (8 April 1872 – 21 November 1922), also known as  Ivan Bloch , was a German  dermatologist , and  psychiatrist ,  psychoanalyst  born in  Delmenhorst ,  Grand Ducal Oldenburg ,  Germany , and often called the first  sexologist .


Together with  Magnus Hirschfeld  and  Albert Eulenburg , Bloch is known for having proposed the new concept of a science of sexuality ( Sexualwissenschaft ) or  sexology . In 1906 he wrote in German the book  Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit in seinen Beziehungen zur modernen Kultur  which was translated as  The Sexual Life of our Time in its Relations to Modern Civilization , a complete encyclopedia of the sexual sciences in their relation to modern civilization. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


He is also known for having discovered the  Marquis de Sade 's manuscript of  The 120 Days of Sodom , which had been believed to be lost, and published it under the pseudonym  Eugen Dühren  in 1904. He had previously published  Marquis de Sade: his life and works.  In 1899 under the same  pseudonym , which he used later for the publishing of more works about Sade and Rétif de la Bretonne.


Bloch came from a  Jewish  family. His father Louis Bloch (1846–1892) was a cattle dealer from Bassum who had a total of five children with his wife Rosa Lisette Rosette, née Meyer (1845–1921). [ 3 ]


According to  Sigmund Freud , Bloch's studies were instrumental in the development of the anthropological approach to the theory of sexuality. Before Bloch, homosexuality was analyzed using a pathological approach. [ 4 ]


Iwan Bloch began the publication of his  Handbuch der gesamten Sexualwissenschaft in Einzeldarstellungen  ( Handbook of Sexology in its Entirety Presented in Separate Studies ) in 1912. Three volumes appeared until the project was aborted because of Bloch's untimely death at age 50, in 1922.


(Band 1, Band 2, Band 3: Louis Marcus, Berlin, 1912–25):


He had published earlier:


Were published after his death:


Fredric Sheldon Brandt  (June 26, 1949 – April 5, 2015) was an American physician, researcher, lecturer, author, and radio host specializing in cosmetic  dermatology . Among the first to use  botulinum toxin  ("botox") and fillers, [ 1 ]  Brandt was noted for his role in the FDA approval of numerous fillers and botulinum toxins for cosmetic use in the United States.


Brandt, who hosted a radio show called  Ask Dr. Brandt  on SiriusXM radio and whose celebrity patients included   Madonna , was called the "Baron of Botox" by  W  magazine [ 2 ]  and "King of Collagen" for using more botox and collagen than any other dermatologist in the world. [ 3 ]


Brandt was born into a Jewish family [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]  in  Newark, New Jersey , where his parents, Irving and Esther Brandt, owned a candy shop. [ 2 ]  He graduated from  Rutgers University  in 1971. [ 8 ]  Brandt then obtained his medical degree from  Hahnemann Medical College  and completed an internal medicine residency at  New York University , followed by a dermatology residency at the  University of Miami . He set up a practice in Miami in 1982, and subsequently opened up a practice in New York City in 1998. [ 5 ]


Brandt's Dermatology Research Institute was located in his dermatology office in Miami, Florida. Along with his associates, Brandt performed clinical research on FDA-approved protocols for new fillers, forms of botulinum toxins, lasers, and cosmetic ingredients. [ 6 ]


Brandt was the author of two books about the skin aging process and retention of youthful appearance.


Brandt died from suicide on April 5, 2015, in his home in  Coconut Grove, Florida , aged 65. [ 9 ]


Abraham Buschke  (27 September 1868 – 25 February 1943) was a  Jewish   German   dermatologist  who was a native of  Nakel  in the  Province of Posen . [ 1 ]


In 1891 he received his doctorate in  Berlin , and afterwards was a  surgical  assistant in  Greifswald . Later he worked at dermatological clinics in  Breslau  under  Albert Neisser  (1855–1916) and in Berlin with  Edmund Lesser  (1852–1918). In 1906 he became head of dermatology at  Rudolf Virchow Hospital  in  Wedding .


In 1943 he died in the Nazi concentration camp at  Theresienstadt ,  Bohemia . [ 2 ]


Abraham Buschke specialized in research of  venereal disease . In 1926 with  Martin Gumpert  (1897–1955) he published a treatise on  syphilis  in children titled  Geschlechtskrankheiten bei Kindern  (Venereal Diseases in Children). His name is associated with several eponymous dermatological disorders, including:


In 1894 with  pathologist   Otto Busse  (1867–1922) Buschke described an infectious disease caused by the  fungus   Cryptococcus neoformans . This condition is sometimes referred to as Busse–Buschke disease.


Benno Chajes  (14 November 1880 – 3 October 1938) was a German physician, professor for  Social medicine  and politician. He was a member of the  Prussian parliament  representing the  Social Democratic Party of Germany .