7.1: Hydrogen Bonding and the Properties of Water
Water is an amazing solvent, and has remarkable physical and chemical properties that make it the essential ingredient to life as we know it. The special properties of water come from the fact that the elements hydrogen and oxygen have differing electronegativities. In Chapter 3 we learned that covalent bonds formed between atoms of differing electronegativity are polarized. Because electronegativity is a measure of how strongly a given atom attracts electrons to itself, the atom in the covalent bond with the highest electronegativity will tend to draw the bonding electrons towards itself, resulting in a bond that is electron-rich on one end and electron-poor on the other. Covalent bonds that are polarized are said to have a dipole , where the term dipole moment refers to the direction and magnitude of the charge separation.
Consider water. The Chapter 3 , we used a calculated electrostatic potential map to visualize the electron density around molecules. The map for water is shown to the left and is colored using red to indicate a high electron density and blue to show electron-poor regions. Because electrons carry a negative charge, this also means that the red regions of the molecule are anionic (negative) and that the blue regions are cationic (positive).
electronegativities of hydrogen and oxygen are 2.20 and 3.44, respectively. That means that in each covalent bond, the electrons will be attracted towards the oxygen, leaving the hydrogen electron-poor. In


11.1: Introduction
Astronomy Laboratory 11 – The H-R Diagram
Module Introduction
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, H-R Diagram, is a useful tool which plots stellar luminosity versus temperature. Building on the Star Colors and Spectroscopy lab, you will detail how the H-R Diagram works, and plot some of the stars observed in Lab 10, Star Colors and Spectroscopy. (1)
Objectives
At the end of this module, students will be able to:
- Plot a H-R diagram using provided data
- Analyze the data and make interpretations using the H-R diagram (1)
Outcomes
The material in this module includes content designed to meet the following course outcomes:
- Explain and apply major concepts in astronomy including planets, satellites, stars, meteors, galaxies, and theories of the universe.
- Demonstrate knowledge of scientific method.
- Communicate scientific ideas through oral or written assignments.
- Interpret scientific models such as formulas, graphs, tables and schematics, draw inferences from them and recognize their limitations.
- Demonstrate the ability to think critically.
- Demonstrate the ability to use scientific and quantitative reasoning. (1)
Assigned Readings
Learning Unit 11
Assignments
- Plotting a H-R Diagram Exercise
- Lab 11 Quiz (1)
CC licensed content, Original
- Authored by : Florida State College at Jacksonville. License : CC BY: Attribution


15.3: Customized Word Templates
Learning Objectives
- Create a Word document with customized template.
As Rosamine creates the sales report, the first step she takes is to open the Word application and create a new document using company templates—Rowan Retail Sales Report. She searches for the exact template and selects it by clicking on the image in the Word window.
This is what the template for the sales report looks like. It is in newsletter form with two columns because that is the way the GM prefers the report to be formatted.
Rosamine wants to customize this report, so she starts to tweak it before she starts composing.
Customize Template
The first thing Rosamine decides is to change the look and feel of the template. She changes the theme by clicking on the Design Tab then the Themes button on the far upper left. Rosamine picked the Retrospect theme, which changes the text and colors from the golden yellow color to a red/orange theme.
Next, Rosamine removes the DRAFT watermark from the report.
Still in the Design tab, she moves to the upper right buttons and selects the Watermark button.
- Design Tab. Variety of possible changes for a document.
- Watermark Button. This button inserts or removes a variety of watermarks.
- Remove Watermark Button. Rosamine selects this and the DRAFT watermark is removed from her report.
Contributors and Attributions
- Customized Word Templates. Authored by : Sherri Pendleton. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


5.9: Personality
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Parents often scrutinize their child’s preferences, characteristics, and responses for clues of a developing personality. They are quite right to do so, because temperament is a foundation for personality growth. But temperament (defined as early-emerging differences in reactivity and self-regulation) is not the whole story. Although temperament is biologically based, it interacts with the influence of experience from the moment of birth (if not before) to shape personality (Rothbart, 2011). Temperamental dispositions are affected, for example, by the support level of parental care. More generally, personality is shaped by the goodness of fit between the child’s temperamental qualities and characteristics of the environment (Chess & Thomas, 1999). For example, an adventurous child whose parents regularly take her on weekend hiking and fishing trips would be a good “fit” to her lifestyle, supporting personality growth. Personality is the result, therefore, of the continuous interplay between biological disposition and experience, as is true for many other aspects of social and personality development.
Personality develops from temperament in other ways (Thompson, Winer, & Goodvin, 2010). As children mature biologically, temperamental characteristics emerge and change over time. A newborn is not capable of much self-control, but as brain-based capacities for self-control advance, temperamental changes in self-regulation become more apparent. So an infant that cries frequently doesn’t necessarily have a grumpy personality. With sufficient parental support and increased sense of security, the child may develop into a content preschooler that is not likely to cry to get her needs met.
In addition, personality is made up of many other features besides temperament. Children’s developing self-concept, their motivations to achieve or to socialize, their values and goals, their coping styles, their sense of responsibility and conscientiousness, and many other qualities are encompassed into personality. These qualities are influenced by biological dispositions, but even more by the child’s experiences with others, particularly in close relationships, that guide the growth of individual characteristics.
Indeed, personality development begins with the biological foundations of temperament but becomes increasingly elaborated, extended, and refined over time. The newborn that parents observed in wonder upon becomes an adult with a personality of depth and nuance.


1.8: Sexuality
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter you will be able to do the following.
 Even though it underlies many advertisement themes, is shown independent of any emotional or physical consequences in many TV and Big screen productions, and is commonly participated in outside of marriage, we are raised not to talk about it much. Many of us are even taught that religions are very strict on how sex is exclusively for married people, yet very few of us had the luxury of having our own parents teach us about it.
For some religious believers, it brings family shame to have sex outside of marriage. For others, the fear of God’s retribution shapes their very thinking about what sex is and how we should participate in it. Sociologists strive to maintain awareness of this while simultaneously preserving objectivity.
This chapter has two main goals: First, this chapter will hopefully help you to understand your own sexuality, body, and experiences. Second, this chapter will arm you with the understanding of the critical information you need to know about sexuality and sexual intercourse so that you can protect yourself and possibly others. Education is the most useful tool for protection.
A script is what actors read or study and what guides their behavior in a certain role. A script is a blueprint for what we “should do” in our roles.   Having said that, keep in mind that we are not just born with sexual scripts in place; they are learned. Sexual socialization is the process by which we learn how, when, where, with whom, why, and with which motivations we are sexual beings.
We are all born with drives, which are biological needs that demand our attention and behavioral responses to them.
Sexual scripts, once learned, will shape how that drive is answered. Sexuality is learned via culture and socialization. There are as many unique sexual scripts as there are people, yet some of these scripts have common themes and can be viewed as a collective pattern or trend in the larger social level.
Many of us learn our sexual scripts in a passive way. In other words, we don’t learn from experience, but from a synthesis of concepts, images, ideals, and sometimes misconceptions. For example, the commonly held belief that men and women are two different creatures, perhaps even from different planets, was a very successful fad in recent years that led an entire generation to believe that men might be from “Mars” while women might be from “Venus.”1
Today more and more people living in the U.S. have less religious values and more diverse experiences with sexuality. Further much of the younger generations’ focus on sex is on the orgasm. An orgasm is the sexual climax that accompanies sexual intercourse and includes muscle tightening in the genital area, electrical sensations radiating from the genitals, and a surge of a variety of pleasure-producing hormones throughout the body.
  Numerous studies have shown that most of these traditional scripts are not realistic, healthy, conducive to open communication, nor negotiation of sexual needs and desires for couples. In sum, rather, these traditional notions can be an undermining influence in a couple’s intimacy. More contemporary scripts include these simple ideas:
Both partners need to learn to take ownership of the couple’s sexual experiences.
Both partners need to learn to communicate openly and honestly about their feelings.
Both partners need to learn to meet one another’s desires, needs, and wishes while making sure that their own needs are being met.
Genital Development
Many people think of male versus female reproductive and sexual body parts in terms of opposites. In sexual matters, men and women are very much alike from a physiological and biological point of view. We are even alike in our fetal development with our genitals developing from identical tissues, regardless of being male or female.  In part, technicians want to give the fetus enough time to develop genitals that coincide with the particular sex of the baby. More importantly, the fetus has identical genitals until about the 5 th -6 th week. That means it would require a DNA test to distinguish which sex the fetus is up until that point.
Sexually, males and females start with identical genital buds that usually form into the male or female reproductive organs. Figure 1 briefly discusses the development of male and female sexual parts from very similar genital pelvic tissues. Please note that sexual development is a natural yet extremely complex process that yields a mostly predictable outcome among newborns. That means most females are born with nearly identical sexual parts. Likewise most males are born with nearly identical parts.
Figure 1. Similar Sexual Development in the Male and Female Fetus.
With an XY male genetic configuration, the glans area will develop into the penis. The urethral fold will form the urethral meatus or opening in the penis.  The anal tubercle will form into the anus and external sphincter. The male glands (prostate, cowper’s, and seminal vesicles) develop in another process as do the testicles, which develop inside the abdomen then drop into the scrotum. Figure 2 shows an artist’s depiction of the tissues that biologists would use to identify the developing genitals of males and females.
Figure 2. How Male and Female Reproductive Parts Generate from the Identical Fetal Tissues.3
For the XX female genetic configuration, the glans becomes the clitoral glans; the urethral fold becomes the urethral meatus; the urethral groove and lateral buttress become the labia minora and majora (labia means lips); and the anal tubercle becomes the anus and external sphincter. The vagina, cervix, ovaries, and uterus form from other tissues. Interestingly, ovaries develop inside the abdomen. These basic fetal tissues differentiate because of the X or Y.
There are some variations when the actual physical sexual development does not follow expected patterns. Hermaphroditism is found among those variations and is reported in two forms. First, true hermaphroditism is an extremely rare condition wherein both reproductive organs of both males and females are in one person’s body and functioning to some degree or another (this includes, penis, testicles, prostate gland, vagina, uterus, and ovaries) . Second, pseudo – hermaphroditism (false or near Hermaphroditism) is a rare condition wherein some of both reproductive organs for males or females are present in one person’s body, but neither male nor female organs are completely present and/or fully functioning.
As is mentioned in Figure 2, not all fetal sexual development occurs uniformly. Though not discussed here in great detail, there are five common sexual development variations reported among newborns: Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome; Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome; Fetally Androgenized Females; and DHT-deficient Males. In most cases of fetal development, sexual development is predictable and follows the above mentioned pattern of originating from nearly identical tissues.
The Importance of Sexuality
Sexuality is important to us because it represents an activity that is a rite of passage into adulthood, because it is very pleasurable, and because it reinforces our roles and aspirations as males and females.  Samuel and Cynthia Janus published The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior in 1993. 4 They studied a scientific sample of 2,765 men and women and reported some general trends in U.S. sexual practices and patterns. They found that age-based estimates indicate a great deal of similarity in sexual frequency between age groups with 2-3 sexual encounters per week.
Sex is a minor (yet important) part of our daily time allocation. People with a sexual partner available have sex about 3 times per week, taking about 25 minutes per experience. That means about 75 minutes per week or 3,900 minutes per year is spent having sex. Divide 3,900 by 60 minutes, and it equals about 65 hours per year having sex. At first glance that sounds like a great deal of time allocation, but keep in mind that in comparison, most of us spend most of our lives doing nonsexual things.
Consider these estimates: if the average person sleeps about eight hours in a 24 hour period, works 8.5 hours, eats 1.5 hours, commutes .5 hour, watches TV for three hours, and spends about 2.5 hours for miscellaneous activities, then compared to routine non-sexual activities, sexual intercourse comprises a relatively small portion of our time (see Table 1).
Relatively speaking sexual intercourse is a passive part of the average person’s life accounting for only 65 yearly hours of involvement per year. Many people refrain from regular sexual intercourse until their twenties and are less likely to participate in it if they are not married than are married people.  The average would be much lower if those categories of people were averaged into the equation.
|
Activities |
Daily |
Yearly |
Table 1. Daily and Yearly Hours |
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Hours=24 |
Hours=8,760 |
Spent in Various Activities for An |
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Sleep |
8.0 |
2,920.0 |
Average Person. |
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Work |
8.5 |
3,102.5 |
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Television viewing |
3.0 |
1,095.0 |
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Eating |
1.5 |
547.5 |
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Commuting |
0.5 |
182.5 |
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Miscellaneous |
2.32 |
846.8 |
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Sexual Intercourse |
0.18 hours |
65.0 |
|
|
|
(average 11 |
|
|
|
|
minutes/day) |
|
|
Sexual Anatomy
To understand our own bodies and also understand enough about sexuality to teach our children, we must understand the basics of female and male anatomy. Figure 3 shows an artist’s depiction of a cross section of female reproductive and sexual anatomy. The clitoris is extremely sensitive and is protected by the clitoral hood (not shown here). It sits above the vagina. In females, urine exits the body at the external urethral orifice (also called meatus). The vaginal orifice simply means the opening to the vagina itself. The labia are in two places, closer to the vaginal orifice (labia minora) and further away from the vaginal orifice (labia majora).
The urinary bladder sits behind the pubic bone and during urination travels an inch or two out of the body via the external urethral orifice. In the back and top of the vagina sits the cervix. The cervix is simply the window into the uterus. It is round, muscular and thick and has a small opening in it. The cervix is the bottom portion of the uterus (the uterus is where a fetus or baby would grow and develop during pregnancy).
The uterus leans forward toward the pubic bone. Inside the uterus on the left and the right sides are two small openings where the fallopian tube connects the ovaries to the uterus. There are two ovaries that have thousands of eggs in them at birth. A woman may release as many as 450 eggs during her reproductive years. After an egg is released from the ovary (ovulation), the fallopian tube carries the egg from the ovary down to the uterus. When pregnancy occurs it is often because sperm met the egg in the fallopian tube and fertilized it. Later, if the fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube and implants into the uterus, then conception has taken place.
Figure 3. Female Reproductive and Sexual Anatomy, Cross-sectional View.4
The vagina is approximately three inches long and is made of tissues that are epithelial and mucosal. This means that when blood flow increases to the pelvis the vagina produces a lubricant in the form of moisture. The vagina is not hollow in the sense that a tube is round and hollow. The vagina is relatively flat and has potential space rather than constantly open space. The vagina has a band of pelvic floor muscles that surround it. One set of muscles is called the puboccocceygeus muscle (PC muscle) which is located approximately 1 inch inside the vagina and which also plays a role in sexual pleasure for both partners.
To truly understand how these parts function during sexual intercourse, we need to consider a research-based paradigm developed by Masters and Johnson years ago which they called the sexual response cycle. 5 The sexual response cycle is a model that explains how most people experience three phases when they engage in sexual intercourse: excitement, plateau, and then orgasm.
Masters and Johnson are quick to point out that each individual has a unique and varied sexual response so much so that no two sexual encounters would be expected to be perfectly identical between the same people. Nevertheless, these three phases are very common among most people.
As sexual intercourse begins both males and females pass through three phases.
Excitement phase is when blood flows to the pelvis bringing, more lymphatic fluid and
plasma to the region . Because of hormonal and psychological stimuli there is generally swelling in the sexual parts. While this is happening, the plateau phase begins which is when more hormones are released, moisture increases, heart rate increases, intensity of sensory perception increases (touch, smell, sight, hearing, and taste) . In the orgasm phase an electrical build up of energy is released that is associated with a rhythmic contraction of the pelvic floor muscles, the urinary and anal sphincters, and of various glands for males . This is called an orgasm. After the orgasm finishes, resolution eventually allows the sexual parts to return to pre-excitement conditions. These are almost identical in every way between males and females, except that there are differing sexual parts for each.
Thus, a sexual response in a typical female would typically follow a pattern similar to this one. In the excitement phase, blood and lymphatic fluids increase swelling inside the vagina. Hormones are secreted which lead to a mild uterine contractions which raise the uterus away from the pubic bone. The labia swell and the clitoris becomes hard. The vaginal tissues secrete moisture and the vagina itself lengthens and expands slightly inward.
The plateau phase begins as excitement continues. This causes the labia to become fully swollen, the clitoris to recede under the clitoral hood, and the uterus to become fully elevated (the hormone is called Oxytocin). The vagina is fully lengthened into the body, and, just before orgasm, lubrication ceases. During orgasm, the pelvis of the female experiences a series of contractions which occur every 8/10ths of second and can number anywhere from 1-20 or more in the sequence. The contractions include anal and urinary sphincter contractions, the smooth muscles in the inward portion of the vagina contraction, the puboccocceygeus muscle contraction, the uterine contractions which cause the uterus and cervix to dip down into the vagina, and general muscles contractions in the body.
Further, an electrical sensation surges from the clitoris radiating throughout the body and stimulates the pleasure centers of the brain and a release of the hormone called Oxytocin. When the orgasm ends, the body eventually returns to its pre-excitement state. In general, females have more capacity to experience more contractions over a longer period of time than do males.  This means females can have more sexual intercourse, more often, and with more orgasms than can the average male.
The male anatomy is presented in Figure 4.    About 4-6 inches reported by Masters and Johnson. Since the vagina is 3 inches in length and has very sensitive regions near the outside of the vagina and not so sensitive regions deeper inside, the average male can satisfy the average female in heterosexual intercourse. Urine passes from the urinary bladder and exits at the external urethral orifice at the tip of the penis.
Figure 4. Male Reproductive and Sexual Anatomy, Cross-sectional View.6
There are two testicles inside a pouch called the scrotum. One testicle sits higher than the other. On the back of the testicle is a storage compartment where mature sperm end up before ejaculation. This is called the epididymis. There is a muscle called the dartos muscle (not shown) which elevates and lowers the testicle based on temperature and sexual pleasure. Sperm grow best at about 91 degrees Fahrenheit and most males are at about 98 degrees, so the dartos will raise and lower the testicles if in colder or warmer temperatures.
The testicles produce about 125-250,000,000 sperm every 3-4 days. More importantly, the testicles produce the sex-drive hormone called Testosterone. In males and females, higher levels of testosterone typically mean a higher sex drive (another similarity). The vas deferens will eventually carry the sperm from the epididymis out of the body during the orgasm. The prostate gland swells during excitement and fills with prostatic fluid. The seminal vesicle located above the prostate gland also swells and produces a fluid filled with natural sugars.
For males, in the excitement phase, blood and lymphatic fluids increase swelling inside the prostate, seminal vesicle, testicle, scrotum, and the penis. Hormones are secreted which lead to a higher volume of blood flowing into the spongy tissue columns of the penis than flow out.  The scrotum and dartos muscle draw both testicles up toward the pubic bone pressing the epididymis upward. As stimulation continues the swelling and fluid production continues to increase.
The plateau continues until just before the orgasm.  Males reach a point of no return in their orgasms (females do not). The ejaculation of sperm and fluids will continue in males, regardless of continued or interrupted stimulation. Females would experience an interruption of the orgasm when stimulation is interrupted. For males, the orgasm also includes a series of contractions which occur every 8/10ths of second and can number anywhere from 1-10. Most males will have 5-6.
The contraction includes: anal and urinary sphincter contractions; prostate and seminal vesicle contractions, dartos and scrotum contractions, pelvic floor muscle contractions; penile contractions; and a rhythmic sequence of these in such a way that the ejaculate is expelled from the body out through the penis. The sperm are released from the epididymis and travel through the vas deferens up and around the bladder then through the ejaculatory duct (where it picks up prostate and seminal fluids) and finally out of the penis. An electrical sensation surges from the prostate gland throughout the body and stimulates the pleasure centers of the brain and a release of the hormone called Oxytocin. For males and females Oxytocin brings a feeling of emotional connection.
After an orgasm, males may continue to experience an erection, but will have to wait a while for the central nervous system to reset before they can ejaculate or orgasm again. Most males wait less time when younger and more time when older. For males an ejaculation during orgasm would be expected, but sometimes ejaculations happen with or without orgasms, and orgasms may happen without ejaculations.
 Studies consistently show that sexual desire for women is more sensitive to the context (meaningful or intimate connection) and the social and cultural environment (quality of relationships, stresses of the day, etc.). Generally speaking most men seek more sex than most women throughout most of the life span. Also, most men are more easily aroused by visual stimulation than are most women.
The Janus Report reported that 65% of men have an orgasm every time during love-making while females reported a much lower 15% every time. About 46% of women report “often” having an orgasm during love-making, compared to only 28% of men. 7 These sex drive differences also emerged in self -reported masturbation frequencies. About 55% of men and 38% of women masturbate on a daily-monthly basis.8
Numerous studies show that men and women enjoy sex most in a meaningful relationship, typically long-term committed ones. These studies indicate that the pleasure is more meaningful and enjoyable in long-term committed relationships. Figure 5 shows a pleasure and intimacy continuum for both sexes. Those who abstain from all sexual activity are in the lower left corner with no intimacy and no pleasure. Those who solo masturbate (by themselves) derive pleasure without intimacy. Those who purchase prostitution services derive pleasure, yet have very little intimacy.
Figure 5. Pleasure and Intimacy Continuum for Both Males and Females.
For married or cohabiting couples, sexual intercourse includes both pleasure and intimacy.  In time husbands and wives have sex for many of the other reasons listed in Figure 5. Sometimes one spouse has sex to meet the needs or wants of their partners. At other times sex is a healthy and fun stress relief.  In relationships, sexual intercourse has many functions including reinforcing commitment and loyalty with one another. To give and receive is pleasurable and bonding during sexual intercourse.
 Many report enhancements of intimacy with less focus on pleasure at moments such as these. Others get distracted because sex becomes goal-oriented rather than simply expressive while trying to make a baby. For long-term relationships that have endured challenges such as hardship, betrayals, offenses, anger, arguments and ultimately forgiveness, sexual intercourse takes on a profoundness of its own.  Sex becomes a unique way of enhancing trust and closeness while sometimes providing sexual healing to wounded egos and feelings.
Extramarital affairs are intimate relationships with a person other than one’s spouse that may be sexual or nonsexual. Most U.S. extramarital affairs are sexual and non-consented to by one’s spouse. In spite of a variety of estimates on how many married people were ever unfaithful to their spouse, all scientific studies have found that men were more likely than women to have an extramarital affair and that most men and women do NOT ever have an affair.
Marital infidelity has been and continues to be disapproved of by the general public. Many in the U.S. who disapprove of affairs, simultaneously understand the frailties of the human experience and sympathize to some degree with those who make this “mistake.” Such was found to be true with politicians, movie and TV stars, and sports celebrities (you can pick any one from the online list available on the Internet when you search “celebrity affairs”). Affairs don’t always lead to marital or relational dissolution, but in most cases it is better if the offending spouse or partner confesses the infidelity rather than simply gets caught.
  There are a few common sexual orientations that can be seen at the societal and personal level.
 Sexual desire is the attractions we have for sexual partners and experience that exist independent of our behaviors.  It is important to note that orientations, desires, and behaviors are not always the same thing. They do overlap at times. For example, a heterosexual male may have had a homosexual experience in the past, or not. He may at times desire males and females regardless of his actual sexual activities. A lesbian female may have had a short-term heterosexual relationship, yet define herself as a lesbian.
When considering the congruence of these three concepts it is helpful to use visual aids. Figure 6 below shows how sexual orientation, desires, and behaviors are at times congruent, meaning they correspond directly with each other; or incongruent, meaning they do NOT correspond together with each other. These three dimensions of our sexuality are surprisingly incongruent among adults in the U.S. society.
Figure 6 Sexual Orientation, Desires, and Behaviors: A Venn Diagram.
Edward O. Laumann et al . wrote the largest sociological study of U.S. sexuality ever published. 9 In this book he wrote about the prevalence of self-identified sexual orientations. Laumann and the other researchers surveyed about 3,400 respondents. By far, most members of U.S. society are heterosexual. Laumann avoided the use of the words “heterosexual” or “homosexual.” He found that 7.1% of males and 3.8% of females have had sex with a partner of the same sex. 10
Laumann also reported that over 96% of males and 98% of females identified themselves as heterosexual. Only two percent of males and 0.9% of females identified themselves as homosexual, while 0.8% of males and 0.5% of females reported bisexuality.  Their sample reported 22% of men and 17% of women said yes to the question, “Have you had a homosexual experience?” 11
Janus also reported that 91% of men and 95% of women claimed to be heterosexual; four percent of men and two percent of women claimed to be homosexual; and five percent of men and three percent of women claimed to be bisexual. 12 Heterosexuality is by far the most common identification in studies where respondents are asked to identify their sexual orientation. 13 Yet, heterosexuals may have had a variety of sexual experiences in a variety of context and still consider themselves to be heterosexual in spite of dimensional discontinuity or continuity. Generally speaking Janus and Laumann found that the U.S. is a very sexual nation. They reported that very few men and women reported never having had vaginal sexual intercourse (less than five percent).  Janus specifically reported that only nine percent of men and 17% of women had NO sexual experience before marriage. 14
Sexuality and Politics
Sexual orientation, desires, and behaviors have become extremely politicized. The largest sexual political action committee is the Human Rights Campaign, which emerged in the 1980s as a Gay Community Rights organization. LGBT and LGBTQ have replaced Gay Community as the collective acronym. LGBT stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgendered (occasionally Queer is added by some interest groups). The Human Rights Campaign has become the central political action organization for LGBTQ interest groups. 15
Marriage between same-sex couples became an emotionally charged political issue during the California Proposition 8 referendum and constitutional amendment that Passed November 2008. Because it passed, the California Section 7.5 of the Declaration of Rights to the State Constitution now reads, “Only marriage between a man and a woman is valid or recognized in California.” This set a strong national precedence against rights to same-sex couples to have legally recognized marriage on par with heterosexual married couples. Estimates are that over $80 million was spent on this proposition alone on both the for and against efforts. 16
The Prop 8 initiative originated from a political action committee called ProtectMarriage.com. It self-describes as a “…broad-based coalition of California families, community leaders, religious leaders, pro-family organizations and individuals…to restore the definition of marriage as between a man and a woman.” 17
Interestingly most in the U.S. would never oppose an individual’s choice or orientation when it comes to sexuality. This and other conservative interest groups like it have formed to advocate for conservative legislation and policies in the U.S. and abroad. None, on either side of sexual rights, assumes that this oppositional battle for rights, laws, and policies has ended.
- Grey, J . (1993). Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus: Practical Guide for Improving Communication and Getting What You Want in Your Relationships, HarperCollins.
- see Kama Sutra
- © 2010 Samuel Jones All Rights Reserved
- Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0-471-52540-5
- © 2010 Samuel Jones All Rights Reserved
- Masters, W. & Johnson, V. 1966, Human Sexual Response; Boston: Little Brown
- © 2010 Samuel Jones All Rights Reserved
- Janus Report, Page 86, Table 3.28
- Janus Report, Page 77, Table 3.21
- 1994, The Social Organization of Sexuality U. of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-46957-3
- 1994, The Social Organization of Sexuality U. of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-46957-3
- 1994, The Social Organization of Sexuality U. of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-46957-3, page 69 Table 3.14
- 1994, The Social Organization of Sexuality U. of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-46957-3, Page 70, Table 3.16
- 1994, The Social Organization of Sexuality U. of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-46957-3
- 1994, The Social Organization of Sexuality U. of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-46957-3, page 87, Table 3.29
- www.hrc.org/
- Wiki en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Prop_8
- ProtectMarriage.com/about


17.3B: Use of Whole-Genome Sequences of Model Organisms
- Describe the model organisms used in whole-genome sequencing
Use of Whole-Genome Sequences of Model Organisms
The first genome to be completely sequenced was of a bacterial virus, the bacteriophage fx174 (5368 base pairs). This was accomplished by Fred Sanger using shotgun sequencing. Several other organelle and viral genomes were later sequenced. The first organism whose genome was sequenced was the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae , which was accomplished by Craig Venter in the 1980s. Approximately 74 different laboratories collaborated on the sequencing of the genome of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , which began in 1989 and was completed in 1996. It took this long because it was 60 times bigger than any other genome that had been sequenced at that point. By 1997, the genome sequences of two important model organisms were available: the bacterium Escherichia coli K12 and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Genomes of other model organisms, such as the mouse Mus musculus , the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster , the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans , and the human Homo sapiens are now known. Much basic research is performed using model organisms because the information can be applied to the biological processes of genetically-similar organisms. Having entire genomes sequenced aids these research efforts.
The process of attaching biological information to gene sequences is called genome annotation. Annotation aids researchers doing basic experiments in molecular biology, such as designing PCR primers and RNA targets.
Sequencing genomes allows scientists to identify homologous proteins and establish evolutionary relationships. Furthermore, if a newly-discovered protein is homologous to a known protein, through homology, scientists can make an educated guess as to how the new protein functions.
Eukaryotes are organisms containing cells that enclose complex organelles within a well-defined cell membrane. The defining characteristic that sets eukaryotes and prokaryotes apart is the eukaryotes’ nucleus, or nuclear envelope, in which an organism’s genetic information is contained. The first eukaryotic genome to be sequenced was that of S. cerevisiae , which is the yeast used in baking and brewing. It is the most-studied eukaryotic model organism in molecular and cell biology, similar to E. coli ‘s role in the study of prokaryotic organisms. Research on many proteins that are important to humans is done by examining their homologs in yeasts. For example, signaling proteins and protein-processing enzymes were discovered through the help of yeast genome.
Key Points
- The first genome to be completely sequenced was the bacterial virus, bacteriophage fx174, which is 5368 base pairs.
- Scientists utilize genome sequencing from model organisms to study homologous proteins and establish evolutionary relationships.
- Genome annotation is the process of attaching biological information to gene sequences identified using whole-genome sequencing.
- Model organisms include the fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ), brewers yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ), the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, and the mouse ( Mus musculus ).
Key Terms
- genome annotation : the process of attaching biological information to gene sequences.
- model organism : any organism (e.g. the fruit fly) that has been extensively studied as an example of many others and from which general principles may be established


7.12: Editing
- Describe techniques for reading for editing
Once you have completed your revision and feel confident in your content, it’s time to begin the editing stage of your revision process. The following questions will guide you through your editing:
- Are there any grammar errors , i.e. have you been consistent in your use of tense, do your pronouns agree?
- Have you accurately and effectively used punctuation ?
- Do you rely on strong verbs and nouns and maintain a good balance with adjectives and adverbs , using them to enhance descriptions but ensuring clear sentences?
- Are your words as accurate as possible?
- Do you define any technical or unusual terms you use?
- Are there extra words or clichés in your sentences that you can delete ?
- Do you vary your sentence structure ?
- Have you accurately presented facts ; have you copied quotations precisely?
- If you’re writing an academic essay, have you tried to be objective in your evidence and tone?
- If writing a personal essay, is the narrative voice lively and interesting ?

- If you used sources, have you consistently documented all of the sources’ ideas and informatio n using a standard documentation style?
Adopt a Listening Ear
The key to revising your work for grammar (both word choice and wording) and mechanics (small but important matters such as punctuation) is to listen to your work anew. The best writers adopt an objective “listening ear,” learning to detect their problems of grammar and mechanics both intuitively and methodically, pretending they’re encountering the work for the first time no matter how many times they’ve re-read it.
As you develop this practice, you can count on two things.
- We tend to repeat the same errors over and over in our writing.
- Other writers make the same errors we do.
If we have one comma error in an essay, we’re likely to have others; if we have a particular usage problem such as the distinction between “ affect ” and “ effect ,” we can be sure other writers have it too. By studying the most common errors and revising accordingly, we’re likely to improve our work substantially. And when we make particularly common errors in our writing (such as confusing “ it’s ” with “ its ”), our audience is justified in viewing us as lazy because such errors are relatively easy to correct.
If you know you often make certain errors, double-check for these in particular. Make a note of your errors each time you get work marked and look for patterns. For example, missppellingss, or keyboarding letters bcak ot frotn, missing words or adding words because your brain works far faster you can write type. Did you spot all those kinds of errors in the previous sentence?
Reading for Editing
When you edit, you want to do a careful, slow, and detailed reading. Here are some tips:
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Read aloud, word for word
- Take advantage of the dual power of sight and hearing working together and you may hear a mistake that you can’t see, such as an omitted or repeated word. Also, note that wherever you pause, you often need some punctuation . You can even use a screen reader to have your essay read aloud to you.
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Slow down to about 25% of your normal reading speed
- This will help you to read what is actually on the page, not what you think is there. When you read what you wrote, because you already know what is there, it is harder to concentrate on each word. When you read at normal speed, you “fix your eyes” on the page only three or four times per line, or less. You unconsciously predict the words between these points and often pick out only as much of the words as you need to do this–perhaps only as much as the first and last letters.
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Read from the end
- Instead of starting at the beginning of your page, start with the very last sentence and read that on its own, then read each sentence individually, working back towards the beginning, a sentence at a time.
- This will stop you sliding over the words and help you see if you have complete sentences or fragments and run-on sentences. It will also help you see if you have pronouns (like it or this ) that do not have full meaning because they are too far from their corresponding noun.
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Check for consistency and accuracy
- Check through all the verbs to make sure tenses are consistent (all match in time sequence)
- Ask who?/what? for each verb to make sure singular/plural subjects match with verbs. Check every sentence has a full stop (for example, did you notice that the line above this one needed a full stop at the end?).
- Some bits of your writing need to be double-checked, such as the accuracy of statistics, dates, page references, or quotations you have copied, to make sure that the evidence you have selected is absolutely correct. This may mean re-reading sections of your sources again.
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Read for formality
- Look through your writing for symptoms that your text is not formal enough. You can do this easily using the Find and Replace tool in Microsoft Word and searching for apostrophes in words like it’s , they’re , you’re , can’t . These contractions typically need to be replaced by the full words to be formal enough for an academic essay or report.
- Similarly, search for the capital letter ‘I’ because first person may not be appropriate and might need to be replaced by the passive or third person (“Results from this experiment show that…” instead of “I did an experiment that shows…”).
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Check your reference list
- Check through your reference list systematically for alphabetical order and for all required commas, full stops, parentheses, and for missing details such as place or publisher or date that you accessed a website.
- Use Grammar tools such as spell-check or Grammarly
The additional strategies below can also help you spot errors in your writing:
| Print a hard copy of your document. Reading on paper is different from reading electronically, so you’ll catch errors on paper you hadn’t noticed before. | |
| Put a ruler under each line as you read through the document. This technique will isolate lines, making it easier to spot mistakes. Some writers also like to use a pencil to point at each word. | |
| Read through the paper backwards sentence by sentence. This reverse reading technique puts the focus on the words, sentences, and punctuation marks rather than on the ideas. | |
| Ask a classmate or friend to read the document. Two sets of eyes are better than one. |
This video highlights some helpful techniques for spotting editorial concerns.
(Note: the video has an instrumental soundtrack but no dialogue, so it can be watched without sound.)
Contributors and Attributions
- Video: Proof Reading. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Editing. Provided by : Excelsior College OWL. Located at : https://owl.excelsior.edu/writing-process/revising-and-editing/revising-and-editing-revising-stage-3/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Proofreading Guidelines and Techniques. Authored by : Karen Forgette. Provided by : University of Mississippi. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Adopt a Listening Ear. Authored by : Joe Schall. Provided by : Penn State. Located at : https://www.e-education.psu.edu/writingpersonalstatementsonline/p3_p7.html . Project : Writing Personal Statements Online. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
- Proofreading. Provided by : Writing Works. Located at : writingworks.wikispaces.com/Proofreading. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
- Proof Reading. Authored by : EdumationFilms. Located at : https://youtu.be/AsGx4-vUpKs . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Austin Powers meme. Located at : http://www.quickmeme.com/meme/3tju9v . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Fair Use


13.12: US Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations
- Explain the US Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations.
- List the compliance steps from the U.S. Sentencing Commission Guidelines.
Purpose of Sentencing Guidelines
Even when an employee’s actions go against company policy, the company can be held legally responsible, despite its best efforts to prevent unethical behavior. This applies only when the employee acts within the scope of employment. An employee who deals drugs while on the job is not operating within the scope of employment, so the company would not be held liable for the offense. However, if an employee uses the account information of bank customers to steal money from them, the bank would be held responsible. The most common offenses related to companies include fraud, hazardous waste discharge, tax evasion, antitrust offenses, and food and drug violations.
Punishment for corporate offenses is governed by chapter eight of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations. These guidelines were designed to enhance two purposes of criminal sentencing: “just punishment” and “deterrence.” The guidelines apply to corporations, partnerships, nonprofit entities, government bodies, trusts, labor unions, and pension funds. They govern only sentencing for felonies and serious misdemeanors.
US Sentencing Guidelines
US Sentencing Guidelines reflects the following general principles:
- First, the court must, whenever practicable, order the organization to remedy any harm caused by the offense. The resources expended to remedy the harm should not be viewed as punishment, but rather as a means of making victims whole for the harm caused.
- Second, if the organization operated primarily for a criminal purpose or primarily by criminal means, the fine should be set sufficiently high to divest the organization of all its assets.
- Third, the fine range for any other organization should be based on the seriousness of the offense and the culpability of the organization. The seriousness of the offense generally will be reflected by the greatest of the pecuniary gain, the pecuniary loss, or the amount in a guideline offense level fine table. Culpability generally will be determined by six factors that the sentencing court must consider. The four factors that increase the ultimate punishment of an organization are: (i) the involvement in or tolerance of criminal activity; (ii) the prior history of the organization; (iii) the violation of an order; and (iv) the obstruction of justice. The two factors that mitigate the ultimate punishment of an organization are: (i) the existence of an effective compliance and ethics program; and (ii) self-reporting, cooperation, or acceptance of responsibility.
- Fourth, probation is an appropriate sentence for an organizational defendant when needed to ensure that another sanction will be fully implemented, or to ensure that steps will be taken within the organization to reduce the likelihood of future criminal conduct.
These guidelines offer incentives to organizations to reduce and ultimately eliminate criminal conduct by providing a structural foundation from which an organization may self-police its own conduct through an effective compliance and ethics program. The prevention and detection of criminal conduct, as facilitated by an effective compliance and ethics program, will assist an organization in encouraging ethical conduct and in complying fully with all applicable laws.
Guideline Compliance Steps
The US Sentencing Commission has done the hard work of designing an ethics program, and this model has become the backbone of every corporate ethics program. Essentially, organizations are offered incentives for detecting and preventing crime, provided that any offense is reported to the authorities, and no high-level employee has committed the offense. Some incentives include reduced fines, the avoidance of incarceration, supervised release, and reductions in the time to be served.
The guidelines are only a model of “corporate good citizenship” and do not include details for implementation. The compliance steps from the Federal Sentencing Guidelines include the following:
- Establish standards and procedures to prevent and detect criminal conduct, which starts with a code of ethics or statement of values.
- Senior management must be knowledgeable about the compliance and ethics program as well as oversee its implementation and make reasonable efforts to ensure its effectiveness.
- Make reasonable efforts to exclude any individual who has committed an illegal act or engaged in other activities inconsistent with a compliance and ethics program from substantial authority in the organization.
- Periodically communicate the aspects of the compliance and ethics program to its members by conducting training programs and disseminating relevant information.
- Ensure that the program is followed by (1) monitoring and auditing activities to detect criminal conduct, (2) periodically evaluating its effectiveness, and (3) employing systems that allow for anonymity or confidentiality if employees want to report criminal conduct without fear of retaliation. A common practice is a whistleblower hotline.
- Promote and enforce the program by offering incentives for performance in accordance with the program and instituting disciplinary measures for engaging in or failing to take reasonable steps to prevent/detect criminal conduct.
- Respond to criminal conduct and take steps to prevent future and similar offenses when criminal conduct has been detected.
By establishing and enforcing a compliance and ethics program, a company can prevent fraud and shield itself, although not completely, from the repercussions of the unethical and illegal acts of its employees.
Contributors and Attributions
- U.S. Sentencing Guidelines. Authored by : Talia Lambarki and Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- US Government code of ethics. Authored by : Clancy Ratliff. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/culturecat/428779117 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- 2018 GUIDELINES MANUAL CHAPTER EIGHT - SENTENCING OF ORGANIZATIONS. Provided by : United States Sentencing Commission. Located at : https://www.ussc.gov/guidelines/2015-guidelines-manual/2015-chapter-8 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


21.2: Cultural Groups and Formation of a Cultural Identity
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- Explain the concept of culture.
- Distinguish between nonmaterial and material culture.
- Identify cultural traits.
- Describe the visible and invisible elements of culture.
- Differentiate between individualistic and collective cultural traits.
As discussed previously, culture has no single definition and is both universal and personal. The best way to conceptualize culture is as a set of learned patterns of beliefs, behaviors, ideas, philosophies, and practices that are shared. These cultural elements are not constant but are formed throughout an individual’s lifetime.
Cultural Groups, Patterns, and Expression
A cultural group shares a core set of beliefs, patterns of behavior, and values. These groups may be large or small, but their thinking and behavior identify them. Cultural groups are defined by not only racial or ethnic background but also by linguistic, religious, spiritual, geographical, and/or sociological characteristics (Office of Minority Health, 2013). Cultural groups consist of subcultures , also known as aggregates; a subculture shares distinguishing characteristics that may identify with aspects of its larger parent culture. For example, children born between the early 2010s and the mid-2020s are part of Generation Alpha, a subculture based on generation.
Cultural patterns of behavior are socially acquired, not genetically inherited. Patterns specific to a particular culture are learned through the process of enculturation . Social institutions such as the family, religion, the education system, peer groups , community, and the media play a role in enculturation. Each culture shares a particular set of cultural traits, such as rituals , which serve as the fundamental structures of culture. Cultural traits are material (objects or artifacts) and nonmaterial (ideas or values). In each culture, thousands of cultural traits influence identity formation (Fabietti, 2016). Over time, the shared beliefs, values, and norms create cultural patterns that distinguish the group from other cultures.
Culture is like an iceberg with visible and hidden elements (Figure 21.3). Visible cultural elements include dress, food, language, and art. Visible elements are tangible. However, visible elements only make up about 10 percent of cultural identity. The other 90 percent is made up of hidden or invisible elements. Invisible elements are the intangible parts of a culture, such as communication styles, rules, etiquette, views of time and space, and emotional regularity (Hall, 1976).  Culture informs beliefs regarding what is true and false; values of right and wrong; attitudes, including likes and dislikes; and behaviors. It is from these cultural influences that people’s identities are formed (University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing, 2016).
Culture informs how one is socialized to interact with other people and communities. For example, in an individualistic culture , individuals are socialized to be independent and psychologically separate from others. In comparison, collectivist cultures encourage interdependence and promote the interests of the collective over the individual (Fatehi et al., 2020).
For example, Western cultures, including the United States, emphasize the self as independent and separate from others. This independence is expressed by focusing on self -goals, wishes, and desires. Common expressions in an individualistic culture are self-fulfillment and self-actualization . In comparison, some Asian cultures emphasize interdependence and fitting in to maintain harmony (Fatehi et al., 2020).
People express their culture in a variety of ways. Examples are traditions, symbols, clothing, foods, and ways of doing things or behaving. From a theoretical perspective, there are two types of culture: nonmaterial and material. Nonmaterial, or symbolic, culture includes elements such as values, beliefs, symbols, and languages. In contrast, material culture relates to physical objects such as clothing, utensils, and tools.
Cultural Identity
Personal identity is influenced by the cultural groups an individual belongs to that form their social identity. These cultural groups may be involuntary (family) or voluntary (book club). Social identities represent who an individual is and who they are not. Food, clothing, celebrations, and religion are all manifestations of culture, and each plays a role in shaping and reinforcing cultural identity and community. The interconnection of an individual’s cultural, personal, and social identities helps form their self-concept and their cultural identity.
- Food : Different cultures have different culinary traditions in the types of popular foods and the ways of preparing and consuming food. For example, in many parts of Asia, it is customary to eat with chopsticks, while in the Western world, using a fork and knife is more common. In some cultures, it is considered rude to waste any part of an animal when cooking. Some cultures also believe that certain foods or drinks have medicinal or spiritual properties.
- Clothing is another important aspect of culture; different cultures have different dress codes and styles. For example, in some cultures, it is customary for women to cover their heads or wear long dresses or skirts, while men in some cultures wear traditional robes or hats.
- Holidays and celebrations : Different cultures celebrate various holidays and festivals that are significant to their beliefs, history, and traditions. For instance, the Lunar New Year is a major holiday celebrated across Asia and many other parts of the world. Recognizing its importance, New York State has officially declared the Lunar New Year a public school holiday through legislative approval (New York State, 2023).
- Religious practices : Religion plays a vital role in many cultures, and different religions have their own rituals and practices. For example, Muslims are expected to pray five times a day facing Mecca, while Hindus perform puja ceremonies and offer food and flowers to their deities.
Social Organization
Social organization , or how societies are structured and organized, influences culture, from the distribution of power and resources to the values and beliefs transmitted through education.
Here are a few ways in which social organization can influence culture:
- Power structures : The distribution of power and authority in a society can impact cultural practices. For example, in societies where power is concentrated in the hands of a few, cultural practices may reflect and reinforce this power dynamic. Similarly, cultural practices may reflect a more egalitarian ethos in societies where power is more broadly distributed.
- Social hierarchies : Whether and how social groups are organized and ranked in a society can also shape cultural practices. For example, in societies with rigid caste systems or class hierarchies, cultural practices may reflect and reinforce these social distinctions. In societies with more fluid social hierarchies , cultural practices may be more diverse and flexible.
- Economic systems : How resources are produced, distributed, and consumed in a society influences cultural practices. For example, cultural practices may be more individualistic and consumer-oriented in societies with advanced capitalist economies. In contrast, cultural practices in societies with more collectivist or communal economic systems may focus more on community and shared resources.
- Education : Attitudes regarding education can shape cultural practices. For example, in societies where education is valued and accessible, cultural practices may emphasize learning and intellectual pursuits.


9: Partnering with Families Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 98779 Cindy Stephens, Gina Peterson, Sharon Eyrich, & Jennifer Paris College of the Canyons via College of the Canyons Learning Objective Examine effective relationships and interactions between early childhood professionals, children, families, and colleagues, including the importance of collaboration. 9.1: NAEYC Standards 9.2: California Early Childhood Educator Competencies 9.3: National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Code of Ethical Conduct (May 2011) 9.4: Preview 9.5: Working with Families 9.6: What is a Family? 9.7: Ethical Responsibilities to Families 9.8: The Diversity of Today’s Families 9.9: Parenting Styles 9.10: Stages of Parenting 9.11: Valuing Families through Reflective Practice 9.12: Planning Partnerships 9.13: Behavior as it Relates to Family 9.14: Family Education 9.15: Communicating with Families 9.16: In Closing


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2.3.1: Introduction
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The purpose of derivation systems is to provide a purely syntactic method of establishing entailment and validity.
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2.3.2: The Sequent Calculus
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While many derivation systems operate with arrangements of sentences, the sequent calculus operates with sequents.
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2.3.3: Natural Deduction
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Natural deduction is a derivation system intended to mirror actual reasoning (especially the kind of regimented reasoning employed by mathematicians).
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2.3.4: Tableaux
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While many derivation systems operate with arrangements of sentences, tableaux operate with signed formulas.
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2.3.5: Axiomatic Derivations
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Axiomatic derivations are the oldest and simplest logical derivation systems. Its derivations are simply sequences of sentences.


1.7: Rhythm
When you think of the word rhythm, the first thing that might pop into your head is a drum beat. But rhythm goes much deeper than that. Earlier, we defined music as intentional organization of sounds. Rhythm is the way the music is organized in respect to time. It works in tandem with melody and harmony to create a feeling of order. The most fundamental aspect of rhythm is the beat , which is the basic unit of time in music. It is the consistent pulse of the music, just like your heartbeat creates a steady, underlying pulse within your body. The beat is what you tap your feet to when you listen to music. Imagine the beat as a series of equidistant dots passing through time as in the Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\).
It should be noted that the beat does not measure exact time like the second hand on a clock. It is instead a fluid unit that changes depending on the music being played. The speed at which the beat is played is called the tempo . At quick tempos, the beats pass by quickly, as represented by Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) below showing our beats pressed against each other in time.
At slow tempos, the beats pass by slowly, as seen inFigure \(\PageIndex{3}\) showing our beats with plenty of space between them. Composers often indicate tempo markings by writing musical terms such as “allegro” which indicates that the piece should be played at a quick, or brisk, tempo.
In other cases, composers will write the tempo markings in beats per minute (BPM), when they want more precise tempos. Either way, the tempo is one of the major factors in establishing the character of a piece. Slow tempos are used in everything from sweeping love songs to the dirges associated with sadness or death. Take for example, Chopin’s famous funeral march:
Fast tempos can help to evoke anything from bouncy happiness to frenzied madness. One memorable example of a fast tempo occurs in “Flight of the Bumblebee,” an orchestral interlude written by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov for his opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan, which evokes the busy buzzing of a bee.
Beats are the underlying pulse behind music, while meter refers to the way in which those beats are grouped together in a piece. Each individual grouping is called a measure or a bar (referring to the bar lines that divide measures in written music notation). Most music is written in either duple meter (groupings of two), triple meter (groupings of three), or quadruple meter (groupings of four). These meters are conveyed by stressing or “accenting” the first beat of each grouping. In the figure below, you can see examples of triple and quadruple meter. The first beat of each bar is larger than the rest to indicate this accent. These larger beats are often referred to as strong beats, while the smaller beats between them. are referred to as weak beats.
To illustrate how vital rhythm is to a piece of music, let’s investigate the simple melody “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” Below, the melody and chords are conveyed through standard musical notation. The meter is indicated by the two numbers four over four. (This is known to music readers as the time signature .) This particular time signature is also known as “common time” due to the fact that it is so widely used. The top number indicates the meter, or how many beats there are per measure. The bottom number indicates which type of note in modern musical notation will represent that beat (in this case, it is the quarter note). The vertical lines are there to indicate each individual measure. As you can see, the melody on the top staff and the chords on the bottom staff line up correctly in time due to the fact that they are grouped into measures together. In this way, rhythm is the element that binds music together in time.
One way to add a sense of rhythmic variation to music is through the use of syncopation. Syncopation refers to the act of shifting of the normal accent, usually by stressing the normally unaccented weak beats or placing the accent between the beats themselves as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) .
Syncopation is one of the defining features of ragtime and jazz, and is one aspect of rhythmic bounce associated with those genres of music. In Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\) below, it is the circled notes on the weak beats which are accented or emphasized.
In some cases, certain types of music may feature the use of a polyrhythm , which simply refers to two or more different rhythms being played at the same time. A common polyrhythm might pit a feeling of four against a feeling of three. Polyrhythms are often associated with the music of Africa. However, they can be found in American and European music of the twentieth century, such as jazz. Listen to the example below of Duke Ellington playing his signature song, the Billy Strayhorn composition “Take the A Train.” You will notice that the beats in the piece are grouped as four beats per measure (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). Pay special attention to what happens at 1:32 in the video. The horns begin to imply groupings of three beats (or triple meter) on top of the existing four beat groupings (or quadruple meter). These concurrent groupings create a sense of rhythmic tension that leads the band into the next section of the piece at 1:38 in the video.
Ex. 1.16: Duke Ellington “Take the A Train”


3.4: The Unit Vector in 3-Dimensions and Vectors in Standard Position
The Unit Vector in 3-Dimensions
The unit vector, as you will likely remember, in 2-dimensions is a vector of length 1. A unit vector in the same direction as the vector \(\overrightarrow{v}\) is often denoted with a “hat” on it as in \(\hat{v}\) . We call this vector “v hat.”
The unit vector \(\hat{v}\) corresponding to the vector \(\hat{v}\) is defined to be \[\hat{v}=\frac{\vec{v}}{\|\vec{v}\|} \nonumber \]
Unit vector corresponding to the vector \(\overrightarrow{v}\boldsymbol{=}\left\langle -8,\left.12\right\rangle \right.\)
Solution
The unit vector corresponding to the vector \(\overrightarrow{v}\boldsymbol{=}\left\langle -8,\left.12\right\rangle \right.\) is
\[\hat{v}=\frac{\overrightarrow{v}}{\left\|\overrightarrow{v}\right\|}\nonumber \]
\[\begin{gathered}
\hat{v}=\frac{\langle-8,12\rangle}{\sqrt{(-8)^2+(12)^2}} \\
\hat{v}=\frac{\langle-8,12\rangle}{\sqrt{64+144}} \\
\hat{v}=\frac{\langle-8,12\rangle}{\sqrt{208}} \\
\hat{v}=\left\langle\frac{-8}{\sqrt{208}}, \frac{12}{\sqrt{208}}\right\rangle
\end{gathered} \nonumber \]
A unit vector in 3-dimensions and in the same direction as the vector \(\overrightarrow{v}\) is defined in the same way as the unit vector in 2-dimensions.
The unit vector \(\hat{v}\) corresponding to the vector \(\overrightarrow{v}\) is defined to be \(\hat{v}=\frac{\overrightarrow{v}}{\left\|\overrightarrow{v}\right\|}\) , where \(\overrightarrow{v}\boldsymbol{=}\left\langle x,\left.y,\ z\right\rangle \right..\)
For example, the unit vector corresponding to the vector \(\overrightarrow{v}=\left\langle 5,\left.-3,\ 4\right\rangle \right.\) is
\[\hat{v}=\frac{\overrightarrow{v}}{\left\|\overrightarrow{v}\right\|} \nonumber \]
\[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.-3,\ 4\right\rangle \right.}{\sqrt{5^2+{\left(-3\right)}^2+4^2}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.-3,\ 4\right\rangle \right.}{\sqrt{25+9+16}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.-3,\ 4\right\rangle \right.}{\sqrt{50}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.-3,\ 4\right\rangle \right.}{5\sqrt{2}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\left\langle \frac{5}{5\sqrt{2}},\left.\frac{-3}{5\sqrt{2}},\frac{4}{5\sqrt{2}}\right\rangle \right. \nonumber \]
Vectors in Standard Position
A vector with its initial point at the origin in a Cartesian coordinate system is said to be in standard position . A common notation for a unit vector in standard position uses the lowercase letters i, j, and k is to represent the unit vector in
the \(x\) -direction with the vector \(\hat{i}\) , where \(\hat{i}=\left\langle 1,\left.0,\ 0\right\rangle \right.\) , and
the \(y\) -direction with the vector \(\hat{j}\) , where \(\hat{j}=\left\langle 0,\left.1,\ 0\right\rangle \right.\) , and
the \(z\) -direction with the vector \(\hat{k}\) , where \(\hat{k}=\left\langle 0,\left.0,\ 1\right\rangle \right.\) .
The figure shows these three unit vectors.
Any vector can be expressed as a combination of these three unit vectors.
The vector \(\overrightarrow{v}=\left\langle 5,\ \left.4,\ 7\right\rangle \right.\) can be expressed as \(\overrightarrow{v}=5\hat{i}+4\hat{j}+7\hat{k}\) .
Solution
Now, the unit-vector in the direction of \(\overrightarrow{v}=5\hat{i}+4\hat{j}+7\hat{k}\) is
\[\hat{v}=\frac{\overrightarrow{v}}{\left\|\overrightarrow{v}\right\|} \nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.4,\ 7\right\rangle \right.}{\sqrt{5^2+4^2+7^2}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.4,\ 7\right\rangle \right.}{\sqrt{25+16+49}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.-3,\ 4\right\rangle \right.}{\sqrt{90}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.4,\ 7\right\rangle \right.}{\sqrt{9\bullet 10}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\frac{\left\langle 5,\left.4,\ 7\right\rangle \right.}{3\sqrt{10}}\nonumber \] \[\hat{v}=\left\langle \frac{5}{3\sqrt{10}},\left.\frac{4}{3\sqrt{10}},\frac{7}{3\sqrt{10}}\right\rangle \right.\nonumber \] \[\overrightarrow{v}=\frac{5}{3\sqrt{10}}\hat{i}+\frac{4}{3\sqrt{10}}\hat{j}+\frac{7}{3\sqrt{10}}\hat{k}\nonumber \]
Normalizing a Vector
Normalizing a vector is a common practice in mathematics and it also has practical applications in computer graphics. Normalizing a vector \(\overrightarrow{v}\) is the process of identifying the unit vector of a vector \(\overrightarrow{v}\) .
Using Technology
We can use technology to find the unit vector in the direction of the given vector.
Go to www.wolframalpha.com.
Use WolframAlpha to find the unit vector in the direction of \(\overrightarrow{u}\boldsymbol{=}\left\langle 5,\left.4,\ 3\right\rangle \right.\) . Enter normalize \(\mathrm{<}\) 5,4,3 \(\mathrm{>}\) in the entry field and WolframAlpha gives you an answer.
. The result is 1 over the square root of 2, 2 times the square root of 2 over 5, and 3 over the 5 times the square root of 2."<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Translate WolframAlpha’s answer to \(\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\hat{i}+\frac{2\sqrt{2}}{5}\hat{j}+\frac{3}{5\sqrt{2}}\hat{k}\) .
Try These
Write the unit vector that corresponds to \(\vec{v}=\langle 2,-3,4\rangle\).
- Answer
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\(\frac{2}{\sqrt{29}}\hat{i}-\frac{3}{\sqrt{29}}\hat{j}+\frac{4}{\sqrt{29}}\hat{k}\)
Write the unit vector that corresponds to \(\vec{v}=\langle 1,-1,1\rangle\).
- Answer
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\(\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\hat{i}-\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\hat{j}+\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\hat{k}\)
Write the unit vector that corresponds to \(\vec{v}-\vec{u}=\langle 6,7,2\rangle-\langle 2,7,6\rangle\).
- Answer
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\(\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\hat{i}-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\hat{k}\)
Normalize the vector \(\vec{v}=\langle 4,3,2\rangle\).
- Answer
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\(\frac{4}{\sqrt{29}}\hat{i}+\frac{3}{\sqrt{29}}\hat{j}+\frac{2}{\sqrt{29}}\hat{k}\)


3.11: Chain Rule
With one additional rule, we will have the power to take the derivative of any function we can write down. What is this amazing rule? Why, it’s called the chain rule . The chain rule is \(\frac{d}{dx} f(g(x)) = f'(g(x)) \cdot g'(x)\). If we drop the \((x)\) on each function (note that it is still there, it is just implied), we have a slightly shorter version:
\(\boxed{\cfrac{d}{dx} f(g) = f'(g) \cdot g'}\)
Here, \(f(g)\) is called function composition. It does not mean \(f\) times \(g\). It means we are sticking \(g\) inside of \(f\)! Like \(f\) is eating \(g\)! That’s actually cannibalism if you think about it — so don’t think about it too closely. But do remember how to do function composition.
Why does this work? I’m not going to do a formal proof, but let’s run through an idea behind it. Recall that the derivative is the slope or how steep the graph of a function is. This is a lot easier to think about if we’re talking about lines. For example, suppose \({\color{red}f = 6x - 10}\), and \({\color{blue}g = \frac{1}{2}x + 3}\). As we know from algebra, the slope of the \({\color{red}f}\) line is \({\color{red}6}\), and the slope of the \({\color{blue}g}\) line is \({\color{blue} \frac{1}{2}}\).
So what is the slope of \({\color{red}f}({\color{blue}g})\)? What this means is we are putting \({\color{blue}g}\) inside of \({\color{red}f}\). So if \({\color{red}f = 6x - 10}\), and \({\color{blue}g = \frac{1}{2}x + 3}\), we take the blue \({\color{blue}\frac{1}{2}x + 3}\) and use that to replace the red \({\color{red}x}\). Here is what is would look like:
\[\begin{align*} {\color{red}f}({\color{blue}g}) & = {\color{red}6{\color{blue}\left(\frac{1}{2}x + 3\right)}-10} \\ & = 6\left(\frac{1}{2}x + 3\right)-10 \\ & = 3x + 18 - 10 \\ & = 3x - 8 \end{align*}\]
So again, what is the slope of \({\color{red}f}({\color{blue}g})\)? We can see from this calculation that it is \(3\), the product of the two slopes \({\color{red}6}\) and \({\color{blue} \frac{1}{2}}\). That’s why you have \(f' \cdot g'\) in the formula.
Okay, but what about the \((g)\) after the \(f'\) in the formula? One way to think about the function composition \(f(g)\) is we are looking at the \(f\) curve at the \(x\)-location of \(g\). When you take the derivative, you’re still looking at that same location (now on the \(f'\) curve), so you still need that \((g)\) there to specify that location.
We must identify an “inside” (g) and “outside” (f) function in order to use the chain rule. Often, the “inside” function will be in parentheses (though not always). That works in this case, so the “inside” function is \(x^2 + x\), so \(g = x^2 + x\). The outside function is \(\ln\), and hence \(f =\ln(x)\). We also know \(f' = \frac{1}{x}\) and \(g' = 2x + 1\). Now to use the chain rule, we first need \(f'(g)\). What is this? Well, remember that this is not multiplication, but it is sticking one function inside another. In this case, we are taking \(g = x^2 + x\) and sticking it into the function \(f' = \frac{1}{x}\). This means we replace the \(x\) in \(\frac{1}{x}\), replacing it with \(x^2 + x\), and get \(f'(g) = \frac{1}{x^2 + x}\). Hence we have
\[\begin{align*} \frac{d}{dx} \ln(x^2 + x) & = f'(g) \cdot g' \\ & = \frac{1}{(x^2 + x)} \cdot (2x + 1) \\ & = \boxed{\frac{2x + 1}{x^2 + x}}. \end{align*}\]
There you have it!
Using the power rule, we first multiply \((3x + 1)^2 = (3x + 1)(3x + 1) = 9x^2 + 3x + 3x + 1 = 9x^2 + 6x + 1\). In this form, it is easy to find the derivative: \(\frac{d}{dx} 9x^2 + 6x + 1 = 18x + 6\).
Using the chain rule, we identify the inside \(g\) function as \(3x + 1\), and the outside function as \(x^2\). We then have
\[\begin{align*} \frac{d}{dx} (3x + 1)^2 & = f'(g) \cdot g' \\ & = 2(3x + 1)(3) \\ & = 6(3x + 1) \\ & = \boxed{18x + 6}. \end{align*}\]
Again, math just works!
Things can get quite complicated with the chain rule.
There are no explicit parentheses here, but the square root acts like parentheses, and it designates an inside function of \(g = x^2 + 2e^x\). The outside function is therefore \(f = \sqrt[4]{x}\). If we rewrite \(\sqrt[4]{x}\) as \(g' = 2x + 2e^x\). Hence, the chain rule gives
That’s as simplified as we can get the answer to be.
One more quick example.
Recall that \(e^{\ln(a)} = a\). To prove this rule, we rewrite \(a^x = (e^{\ln(a)})^x = e^{x \ln(a)}\). We are then computing
\(\frac{d}{dx} \ a^x = \frac{d}{dx} \ e^{x \ln(a)}\)
To compute this derivative, we set \(f = e^x\) and \(g = x \ln(a)\). We find \(f' = e^x\) and \(g' = \ln(a)\), so by the chain rule
\[\begin{align*} \frac{d}{dx} \ a^x & = \frac{d}{dx} \ e^{x \ln(a)} \\ & = f'(g) \cdot g' \\ & = e^{x \ln(a)} \cdot \ln(a) \\ \end{align*}\]
We’ve already shown that \(a^x = e^{x \ln(a)}\), so this simplifies to \(a^x \cdot \ln(a)\), as desired.


8.2: Klamath Mountains
The Klamath Mountains, like the Sierra Nevada, San Gabriel, and San Bernardino ranges, were once much lower than they are now, and their surface features were quite tame and uninteresting. The rivers of that time flowed through broad valleys, portions of which remain as plateau-like shoulders overlooking the deep canyons of the present day.
Physical Geography
There came a time when the region began to rise, and with the increase of slope, the streams began to deepen their channels. Anyone looking at a relief map, may be puzzled to understand why the Klamath River leaves the broad Shasta Valley and flows through the mountains in a deep canyon directly to the sea. If we should fill up the canyon, the Klamath River would first form a lake in Shasta Valley and then break through the lowest point in the rim which leads in a southerly direction past Mt. Shasta to the Sacramento River.
The only way in which we can explain the peculiar features mentioned, is by the supposition that long ago, before the mountains had been elevated to their present height, the lowest outlet to the sea lay directly across the mountains where the river flows now, and that as they rose the movement was so slow that the river was able to cut its channel down, and so maintain its position, until the canyons became 2000 to 3000 feet (about 914 m) deep.
Only three valleys of any size are found within the whole Klamath Mountain region. The most important one is Scotts Valley, then Hay Fork Valley and, last, Trinity Valley. In addition, the canyons widen here and there sufficiently to give room for a little bottomland, and if the soil has not been washed away in hydraulic mining, we are likely to find little ranches. The rest of the surface is mostly made up of steep and rugged mountain slopes terminating in deep canyons.
The Klamath Mountain group includes several distinct mountain ranges which form the watersheds of the different river basins. The highest and most picturesque of these is the Salmon Mountains, which constitute the divide between the Salmon and Trinity rivers. Several peaks have an elevation of over 9000 feet. This region, in common with the other higher mountain ridges of the Klamath Mountains, was once glaciated. There are, in consequence, numerous little alpine lakes very similar to those in the Sierra Nevada. The snowfall is heavy, and on the north slope of Thompsons Peak, which rises 9345 feet, there is a small glacier.
Scotts Mountains lie between the head of the North Fork of Trinity River and the upper Sacramento. They include Castle Crags, widely known for their striking scenic features.
The Siskiyou Mountains lie north of the Klamath River and partly in Oregon. They include several peaks about 9000 feet in height. The Trinity Mountains form a high, sharp divide between the Trinity River and the Sacramento River. They pass southward into the Yallo Bally Mountains, which lie at the extreme southern end of what we are calling the Klamath Mountains.
The Klamath is the largest river in Northern California, and its largest tributary is the Trinity River. The Klamath t rises in the lake region of Southern Oregon and flows a little south of west across a depression in the Cascade Range, or rather a volcanic plateau, as we shall call this part of it in the following pages, and directly into and through the Klamath Mountains, as we have already seen.
The Sacramento River also cuts across the Klamath Mountain region. Its main source is in large springs near the southwest base of Shasta and flows southerly through a picturesque canyon. Long ago a lava stream swept fifty miles down this canyon, burying the old riverbed. The present stream has cut down through the lava and exposed in some places the gravels of its former channel.
The McCloud River Basin is a smaller sub-section within the Sacramento River Watershed that specifically drains into the McCloud River before it joins the Sacramento River. The McCloud River origin begins with Subsequent lava flows from active volcanoes in the Cascade Range, Mount Shasta and surrounding volcanoes that left behind underground channels and chambers. Rainwater and snowmelt seep through the porous volcanic rock, filtering and collecting in underground reservoirs. These reservoirs eventually erupt as springs at the base of canyon walls, feeding the McCloud River with a constant flow of cool, clean water throughout the year.
The Klamath mountains were lifted to their present position in stages, and at each period of rest the streams, after having established a new grade and ceased to cut down, began to meander on their flood plains and widen their channels from canyons to valleys. Then, when the uplift was renewed, they began to cut down again. River terraces were formed this way, some of which are covered with gravel and are rich in gold.
Physical Geology
The rocks of the Klamath Mountains originated as island arcs and continental fragments in the Pacific Ocean. The island masses consisted of rifted fragments of pre-existing continents and volcanic island masses created over subduction zones. These island masses contain rocks as old as 500 million years, dating to the early Paleozoic Era. A succession of eight island terranes moved eastward on the ancient Farallon plate and collided with the North American plate between 260 and about 130 million years ago. Each accretion left a terrane of rock of a single age. During the accretion, subduction of the plate metamorphosed the overlying rock, as well as produced magma which intruded the overlying rock as plutons. Serpentinite, produced by the metamorphism of basaltic oceanic rocks, and intrusive rocks of gabbroic to granodiorite composition are common rocks within the Klamath terranes.
The Klamath Mountains became known as a mining region, due to the placer sand and gravels, which proved to be very rich. Gold was found both in the gravels of the present streams and in the terrace remains of the older streams. The gravels were often so deep that they could not be worked by ordinary placer methods, so, the only recourse left was hydraulic operations. The gravel bars, as they are often called, are now largely worked out, but at one time hundreds of hydraulic hoses were hurling streams of water with terrific force at the gravel banks and washing their materials into long sluices where quicksilver was placed to catch the gold as it was swept along.
Case Study - Mt. Shasta
Mount Shasta is a volcano at the southern end of the Cascade Range in Siskiyou County. It is connected to its satellite cone of Shastina, and together they dominate the landscape. Shasta rises abruptly to tower nearly 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above its surroundings. On a clear winter day, the mountain can be seen from the floor of the Central Valley 140 miles (230 km) to the south.
About 593,000 years ago, andesitic lavas erupted in what is now Mount Shasta's western flank near McBride Spring. Over time, an ancestral Mount Shasta stratovolcano was built to a large but unknown height; sometime between 300,000 and 360,000 years ago the entire north side of the volcano collapsed, creating an enormous landslide or debris avalanche, 6.5 cu mi (27 km3) in volume. The slide flowed northwestward into Shasta Valley, where the Shasta River now cuts through the 28-mile-long (45 km) flow.
What remains of the oldest of Mount Shasta's four cones is exposed at Sargents Ridge on the south side of the mountain. Lavas from the Sargents Ridge vent cover the Everitt Hill shield at Mount Shasta's southern foot. The last lavas to erupt from the vent were hornblende-pyroxene andesites with a hornblende dacite dome at its summit. Glacial erosion has since modified its shape. The next cone to form is exposed south of Mount Shasta's current summit and is called Misery Hill. It was formed 15,000 to 20,000 years ago from pyroxene andesite flows and has since been intruded by a hornblende dacite dome.
There are many buried glacial scars on the mountain that were created in recent glacial periods, of the Pleistocene and Wisconsianian ages. Most have since been filled in with andesite lava, pyroclastic flows, and talus from lava domes. Shastina, by comparison, has a fully intact summit crater without glacial erosion, indicating Shastina developed after the last ice age. Shastina has been built by mostly pyroxene andesite lava flows. Some 9,500 years ago, these flows reached about 6.8 mi (10.9 km) south and 3 mi (4.8 km) north of the area now occupied by nearby Black Butte. The last eruptions formed Shastina's present summit about 3,200 years ago. But before that, Shastina, along with the then forming Black Butte dacite plug dome complex to the west, created numerous pyroclastic flows that covered 43 sq mi (110 km2), including large parts of what is now Mount Shasta. Diller Canyon is 400 ft (120 m) deep and 0.25 mi (400 m) wide, is an avalanche chute that was probably carved into Shastina's western face by these flows.
The last to form, and the second highest cone at, the Hotlum Cone, formed about 8,000 years ago. It is named after the Hotlum glacier at 14,160 ft (4,317m) on its northern face; its longest lava flow, the 500-foot-thick (150-metre) Military Pass flow, extends 5.5 mi (8.9 km) down its northeast face. Since the creation of the Hotlum Cone, a dacite dome intruded the cone and now forms the summit. The rock at the 600-foot-wide (180-metre) summit crater has been extensively hydrothermally altered by sulfurous hot springs and fumaroles there (only a few examples remain).
During the last 10,000 years, Mount Shasta has erupted an average of every 800 years, but in the past 4,500 years the volcano has erupted an average of every 600 years.
Cultural Geography
The Klamath people are a Native American tribe of the Plateau culture area in Southern Oregon and Northern California. The Klamath people lived in the area around the Upper Klamath Lake and the Klamath, Williamson, Wood River and Sprague (Plaikni Kóke - “River Uphill”) rivers. They subsisted primarily on fish and gathered roots and seeds. While there was knowledge of their immediate neighbors, apparently the Klamath were unaware of the existence of the Pacific Ocean, and because of this, it caused the Klamath to live in prolonged cultural isolation. However, the Klamath were known to raid neighboring tribes, such as the Achomawi on the Pit River, and occasionally to take prisoners as slaves.
North of the Klamath tribe lived the Molala people. East of the Cascade Range, also known as the "Mountains of the Northerners," in the Rogue River Valley, lived the Rogue River Athabascan tribe. Further south, along the Pit River, called the "River of the Southern Dwellers," lived the Achomawi people. The Atsugewi tribe resided along the Scott River. In the west and northwest regions lived the Latgawa, known as the "Upland Takelma," and the Takelma/Dagelma, known as the "Lowland/River Takelma." There's a possibility that both these western/northwestern tribes shared the name "Rogue River People."
The natives made southern Oregon their home for long enough to witness the eruption of Mount Mazama, around 7,700 years ago. After Mount Mazamas eruption, it would collapse within itself to create a caldera, which filled with rainwater to form Crater Lake.