1.3: College of the Desert’s Course of Study
The study of child development and developmentally appropriate practices for young children. Career paths chosen by students pursuing undergraduate studies in CDE commonly include infant/toddler or preschool teachers and administrators. Careers in the discipline that generally require graduate-level degrees include administrators of government funded programs like Head Start and state preschools. Even students who choose not to major in CDE find that coursework in the field improves their parenting skills.
College of the Desert’s CDE curriculum includes course offerings that provide a general overview of the discipline, as well as teaching strategies that are developmentally appropriate for young children. Students earning CDE certificates may also choose to continue their study toward an associate, baccalaureate or advanced degree in the field. Students earning an associate’s degree in CDE may pursue entry-level positions as preschool teachers or may choose to continue their study in the discipline toward a bachelor’s or graduate degree. COD has transfer agreements with CSUSB, in this discipline/program. However, transfer requirements at four-year colleges and universities tend to vary from institution to institution; students should consult with a counselor for specific information regarding the transfer requirements of their preferred college or university.
Program General Information
Please call<PHONE_NUMBER> or one of the faculty advisors listed below:
ECE Faculty Advisors
Maria Avalos ( Bilingual, Spanish)
Indio Campus, 304-C
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>760-674-7817
Jessica Huffman
Palm Desert Campus, ECE Building
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>760-396-2408
Tiffanie Schnabel-Moreno
Palm Desert Campus, ECE Building
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>760-773-2595


19.11: Introduction to Determining HR Needs
What you’ll learn to do: Discuss how to determine resource requirements
A new business owner, a.k.a. a person starting his or her own small business, might check out Amazing Academy, LLC. Amazing Academy provides training, tools and an online community for new and aspiring business owners. But CEO and founder Matt Clark learned a couple of lessons at the “school of hard knocks” when he laid off 32 of his 62 employees in April of 2016 to “get the company down to its proper size.” [1]
“I read countless books that gave me that advice, but when in the trenches of growth, I made the mistake of rushing hiring and forcing growth,” Clark posted on social media. “It’s easy to hire people.  [2]
Clark was aiming to change the company’s focus from marketing to product, and said, “Trying to make this change with the current team was next to impossible. The culture had deteriorated into a place where people had to walk on eggshells and couldn’t get any work done at the office because of all the distractions and negativity.” [3]
Careful management of human resources can be key in ensuring sustainability and growth. In this section we will learn how to determine resources, accountability and reporting structure, and when to bring on employees instead of using independent contractors.
-
Calnan, Christopher. “
Amazing.com CEO Says He Hired Too Many Workers Too Fast
.” bizjournals.com, May 31, 2016. ↵
-
Ibid. ↵
-
Ibid. ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Introduction to Determining HR Needs. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Untitled. Provided by : pxhere. Located at : pxhere.com/en/photo/870335. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright . License Terms : pxhere License


7.6E: Unsticking Stuck Ribosomes
Aside from the 22 standard amino acids, there are many other amino acids that are called non-proteinogenic or non-standard.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the process and function of posttranslational modification
Key Takeaways
Posttranslational modification (PTM) is the chemical modification of a protein after its translation. It is one of the later steps in protein biosynthesis, and thus gene expression, for many proteins. A protein (also called a polypeptide) is a chain of amino acids. During protein synthesis, 20 different amino acids can be incorporated to become a protein. After translation, the posttranslational modification of amino acids extends the range of functions of the protein by attaching it to other biochemical functional groups (such as acetate, phosphate, various lipids, and carbohydrates), changing the chemical nature of an amino acid (e.g., citrullination), or making structural changes (e.g., formation of disulfide bridges).
Also, enzymes may remove amino acids from the amino end of the protein, or cut the peptide chain in the middle. For instance, the peptide hormone insulin is cut twice after disulfide bonds are formed, and a propeptide is removed from the middle of the chain; the resulting protein consists of two polypeptide chains connected by disulfide bonds. Also, most nascent polypeptides start with the amino acid methionine because the “start” codon on mRNA also codes for this amino acid. This amino acid is usually taken off during post-translational modification.
Aside from the 22 standard amino acids, there are many other amino acids that are called non-proteinogenic or non-standard. Those either are not found in proteins (e.g., carnitine, GABA), or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery (e.g., hydroxyproline and selenomethionine).
Non-standard amino acids that are found in proteins are formed by post-translational modification, which is modification after translation during protein synthesis. These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein. For example, the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations, and the hydroxylation of proline is critical for maintaining connective tissues.
Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A through modification of a lysine residue. Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein. For instance, the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane.
It is important to compare the structures of alanine and beta alanine. In alanine, the side-chain is a methyl group; in beta alanine, the side-chain contains a methylene group connected to an amino group, and the alpha carbon lacks an amino group. The two amino acids, therefore, have the same formulae but different structures.
Some nonstandard amino acids are not found in proteins. Examples include lanthionine, 2-aminoisobutyric acid, dehydroalanine, and the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Nonstandard amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids. For example, ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, which is part of amino acid catabolism. A rare exception to the dominance of α-amino acids in biology is the β-amino acid beta alanine (3-aminopropanoic acid), which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), a component of coenzyme A.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44532/latest/?collection=col11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Structural Biochemistry/Cell Organelles/Ribosome. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Cell_Organelles/Ribosome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Structural Biochemistry/Nucleic Acid/RNA/Transfer RNA (tRNA). Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Nucleic_Acid/RNA/Transfer_RNA_(tRNA). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Structural Biochemistry/Nucleic Acid/RNA/Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Nucleic_Acid/RNA/Ribosomal_RNA_(rRNA). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- anticodon. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anticodon. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, RNA Processing in Eukaryotes. October 16, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44532/latest/Figure_15_04_03.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 16, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44529/latest/?collection=col11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- ribosome. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ribosome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, RNA Processing in Eukaryotes. October 16, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44532/latest/Figure_15_04_03.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Ribosome. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer RNA. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA-Phe_yeast_en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer RNA. Provided by : Wikepedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA-Phe_yeast_en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Translation (biology). Provided by : Wikepedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology)%23mediaviewer/File:Ribosome_mRNA_translation_en.svg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Prokaryotic transcription. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryotic_transcription. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- transcription. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/transcription. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, RNA Processing in Eukaryotes. October 16, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44532/latest/Figure_15_04_03.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Ribosome. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer RNA. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA-Phe_yeast_en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer RNA. Provided by : Wikepedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA-Phe_yeast_en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Translation (biology). Provided by : Wikepedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology)%23mediaviewer/File:Ribosome_mRNA_translation_en.svg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Proteinsynthesis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Proteinsynthesis.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- amino acid. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amino_acid. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Posttranslational modification. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttranslational_modification. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Amino acid. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid%23Non-standard_amino_acids. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Posttranslational modification. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttranslational%20modification. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- translation. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/translation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, RNA Processing in Eukaryotes. October 16, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44532/latest/Figure_15_04_03.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Ribosome. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer RNA. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA-Phe_yeast_en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer RNA. Provided by : Wikepedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA-Phe_yeast_en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Translation (biology). Provided by : Wikepedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology)%23mediaviewer/File:Ribosome_mRNA_translation_en.svg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Proteinsynthesis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Proteinsynthesis.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- File:GeneticCode22.svg - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeneticCode22.svg&page=1. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Transtranslation. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Transtranslation.png. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer-messenger RNA. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer-messenger_RNA. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- MRNA surveillance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_surveillance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer-messenger RNA. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer-messenger_RNA. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- MRNA surveillance. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_surveillance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- ribosome. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ribosome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- translation. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/translation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, RNA Processing in Eukaryotes. October 16, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44532/latest/Figure_15_04_03.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Ribosome. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer RNA. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA-Phe_yeast_en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Transfer RNA. Provided by : Wikepedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TRNA-Phe_yeast_en.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Translation (biology). Provided by : Wikepedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology)%23mediaviewer/File:Ribosome_mRNA_translation_en.svg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Proteinsynthesis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Proteinsynthesis.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- File:GeneticCode22.svg - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeneticCode22.svg&page=1. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Transtranslation. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ATranstranslation.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
Key Points
- During protein synthesis, 20 different amino acids can be incorporated to become a protein.
- Posttranslational modification of amino acids change the chemical nature of an amino acid (e.g., citrullination), or make structural changes (e.g., formation of disulfide bridges).
- Non-standard amino acids either are not found in proteins (e.g., carnitine, GABA), or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery.
Key Terms
- Posttranslational modification : the chemical modification of a protein after its translation. It is one of the later steps in protein biosynthesis, and thus gene expression, for many proteins.
- translation : A process occurring in the ribosome, in which a strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) guides assembly of a sequence of amino acids to make a protein.
- amino acid : Any organic compound containing both an amino and a carboxylic acid functional group.


1.5: Water Quality
One of the most important responsibilities of a water utility is to provide SAFE drinking water. “Safe” can be a confusing word for water utility customers. At times the safety of drinking water is confused with its aesthetic qualities such as taste, odor, and color. Sure, no one wants to drink water that is discolored, has an odor, or tastes bad. However, most of the time the water is safe to drink regardless of how it looks, tastes, and smells. Now, this doesn’t mean that water utilities are supplying customers with aesthetically unpleasing water. It simply means that often the safety of the water has little to do with its aesthetic quality. This is why there are both PRIMARY and SECONDARY drinking water regulations. Primary standards deal with health-related issues while secondary standards focus on aesthetic qualities of the water supply. Although water utilities strive to supply the best water possible, there are times when the water might be unpleasant from aesthetic characteristics. This chapter will discuss both primary and secondary water quality regulations, providing examples of both, as well as a discussion of various job opportunities within this discipline of the water utility industry.
Almost everyone is concerned with the quality of their water. It is typically the top complaint from customers, with the exception of high water bills. Since tap water is usually colorless, odorless, and, for the most part, tasteless, as soon as something changes, customers want to know why. Water quality is also a top concern of water professionals. Water quality professionals are responsible for the treatment, disinfection, testing, and compliance of the water served to their customers. Every year water utilities collect thousands of water samples and have them analyzed by laboratories to ensure compliance with water quality regulations. In addition to collecting samples, water utility operators conduct preventive maintenance, routinely inspect facilities, and respond to customer complaints to prevent and/or correct any water quality problems.
Water Quality Regulations
Current drinking water regulations are very complex and include many different requirements. This following text is a brief historical overview. President Gerald Ford signed the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) in 1974 under growing pressure from newspaper articles, documentaries, and the general public’s skepticism that drinking water might not be safe. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted a national reconnaissance study to assess the concentrations, sources, and potential danger of certain contaminants in municipal drinking water supplies. In 1977, the national safe drinking water standards went into effect across the country. These standards included microbiological contaminants, ten (10) inorganic chemicals, six (6) organic pesticides, turbidity (or cloudiness), and radiological contamination. Among other things, the regulations also included a provision for the States to assume primary enforcement responsibility.
Since the enactment of the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act, there have been two (2) amendments. In 1986, the first amendment was passed. Some of the new requirements with this amendment increased the number of regulated contaminants, required certain filtration processes for surface water supplies, added disinfection requirements for some groundwater systems, and prohibited the use of lead solders, flux, and pipes in public water systems. Ten (10) years later the 1996 amendment was passed. This added a provision in the SDWA referred to as the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR). The UCMR requires the EPA to provide a list of potential contaminants every five (5) years to water utilities so that their drinking water supplies can be analyzed. The EPA will then use this data to prepare future water quality standards. The amendment also created distribution and treatment operator certification requirements and a funding system for states needing financial help to comply with drinking water quality regulations. This funding is referred to as the Safe Drinking Water Revolving Loan Fund.
It is important to note that although there are federal drinking water regulations, many states have their own drinking water standards. In California, the regulatory agency is the Division of Drinking Water (DDW) under the State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB). The DDW is responsible for enforcing the California Safe Drinking Water Act (CSDWA). Many states create their own regulatory agencies to help enforce the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Drinking water quality standards can be broken into two main categories: Primary Drinking Water Standards and Secondary Drinking Water Standards. Each set of standards has a list of contaminants that must be monitored by municipal water utilities and they must be below levels considered safe. These safe levels are referred to in the regulations as Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL). Each constituent has a separate MCL that cannot be exceeded in the water supply or else some action must be taken. An action can be as stringent as taking the source of supply (i.e., groundwater well) immediately out of service. Or it may increase the amount of sampling requirements for a particular constituent. Exceeding an MCL may also require some type of notification to customers. The goal is to protect the public from unsafe levels of potential contaminants in water supplies.
Drinking water quality regulations are not the only water quality regulations water utilities must comply with. There are many water quality regulations protecting the environment. These regulations are part of the Clean Water Act (CWA). The CWA regulates and permits the sampling and monitoring of discharges to “navigable waters of the United States.” Navigable waters are defined by the US Army Corps of Engineers as waters that are subjected to the ebb and flow of tide, and those inland waters that are presently used, or have been used in the past or may be susceptible to use in interstate or foreign commerce. This definition can be interpreted by water utility operators as any body of water wet or dry that discharges can flow into. Common water utility discharges include, but are not limited to flows from:
- Fire hydrant and dead-end flushing
- Water main flushing
- Meter testing
- Water leaks
- Storage tank overflows
- Water sample collection
Although water utilities are required to discharge water for a number of these activities, they must still comply with the CWA and the various State and Local regulatory agencies responsible for implementing the requirements set forth in the CWA. Much of the requirements involve preventing chlorinated water from entering a water body or preventing debris from gutters and storm drains being washed into a water body.
Primary Drinking Water Standards
Primary Drinking Water Standards are for contaminants that pose a health threat when detected in water supplies above an MCL. In order to establish an MCL, the EPA will take into consideration several different factors. They will examine the prevalence and exposure of the contaminant in the environment and in water specifically. A contaminant that isn’t found in water supplies often would find a place low on the EPA priority list. However, a contaminant that is widespread would be at the top of the list. The EPA also looks at health effects. If it is wide spread contaminant but has little to no known health effects to humans then an MCL would not be very probable. However, if the contaminant is toxic or a known carcinogen then an MCL would be very likely. Another consideration is in regards to the analytical methodology. There has to be a statistically reproducible laboratory analytical method in order for the EPA to consider an MCL. If a laboratory cannot detect the contaminant readily and statistically accurate, then having an MCL would be very difficult. Lastly, an economic evaluation is completed. Typically the cost benefit analysis looks at all the previously reviewed material.
Millions of dollars a year are spent by water utilities in efforts to comply with Primary Drinking Water Standards. It is one of the most important responsibilities of water professionals. There are a host of treatment technologies that are used to inactivate or remove contaminants from water. Thousands of samples are collected and analyzed to determine the level of each contaminant. Reports are prepared and filed with public health agencies to demonstrate compliance with the regulations.
Primary Drinking Water Standards are commonly broken up into four (4) main categories:
- Bacteriological
- Inorganic Chemical
- Organic Chemical
- Radiological Compounds
There are multiple constituents within each broad category and it is the utility’s responsibility (with the assistance from the regulatory agencies) to understand the requirements for complying with these contaminants. Below is a brief description of each category, the predominant health effect associated with each, and various treatment methods.
Bacteriological
This group consists of not only bacteriological contamination, but also viruses, protozoa and various other microorganisms that pose a health threat. Most of the health effects associated with microbiological contamination in water are gastrointestinal. Symptoms include vomiting, diarrhea, headache, fever, etc. Many of the symptoms are similar to influenza. However, to various sub-populations, for example the very young or old or people with compromised immune systems, the health effects can be deadly.
Because of the vast number of microorganisms and the difficulty and cost of trying to analyze all of them, an indicator organism group is used for analysis. This group is known as the total coliform group. Coliforms are a group of bacteria that indicate the presence or absence of disease causing microorganisms. The Total Coliform Rule (TCR) is a set of regulations that cover this wide range of contaminants.
Although there are various treatment techniques for the removal and inactivation of microbiological contamination, disinfection is the most common method. Drinking water treatment facilities and distribution systems both use disinfectant chemicals (primarily chlorine) for maintaining the health and safety of drinking water from microorganisms.
Inorganic Chemicals
There are many different chemicals found in drinking water supplies that fall under this broad category. Fortunately most of them are naturally occurring and are considered safe. For example, minerals such as calcium and magnesium are commonly found in drinking water supplies. Although these may pose aesthetic problems for consumers (discussed later in this chapter), they pose no health effects. However, contaminants such as nitrate, arsenic, and chromium can also be found as naturally occurring elements in drinking water and these can pose health problems if ingested at levels above the MCL. In addition to being found naturally in the environment, these and many others are the result of some type of contamination.
- Nitrate – The primary source of nitrate contamination is from some type of fecal contamination. Agricultural farms and leaking septic systems both contribute to nitrate contamination. The main health effect is related to infants six (6) months and younger. If nitrate is ingested at levels above the MCL by this sub-population, a condition known as metheglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome) can occur. This results in suffocation when nitrogen displaces oxygen in the bloodstream.
- Arsenic – Arsenic has been used as a wood preservative resulting in contamination and is also naturally occurring. The primary health effect associated with drinking water containing arsenic at levels above the MCL are cancer-related.
- Chromium – This chemical got its spotlight from the movie Erin Brockovich. An oxidized form of chromium known as “Chrome6” or hexavalent chromium was brought to everyone’s attention when Pacific Gas and Electronic was accused of contaminating the groundwater supply in Hinkley, California. This contaminant also causes cancer-related health effects.
Inorganic chemicals are not commonly found in drinking water supplies above their respective MCL. However, if they are, there are several treatment techniques that can remove these and many other contaminants from the water supply, ion exchange being one of the most common.
Organic Chemicals
The most commonly found organic chemicals found in drinking water supplies fall under the category of VOCs. VOC stands for volatile organic compound and are present in drinking water typically from the result of some type of contamination. Some of the more common VOCs found in drinking water include:
- Trichloroethylene (TCE)
- Tetrachloroethylene (PCE)
- Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE)
These chemicals come from various sources including degreasing agents, dry cleaners, and fuel additives respectively. These are considered “volatile” because of their propensity to evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or solid form of the compound and enter the surrounding atmosphere. Therefore, one of the more common treatment techniques to remove VOCs from drinking water is granular activated carbon in combination with packed air towers. The primary health effect from drinking water containing VOCs at levels above the MCL is cancer.
Radiological Compounds
The primary source of radiological compounds in drinking water is from naturally occurring sources. Geologic formations can contain uranium, radium, strontium and other radiological compounds. In rare cases, radiological contamination can result from a nuclear facility accident. However, this is not very common. As with many drinking water contaminants the primary health effect is cancer-related. Common treatment for radionuclides is ion exchange.
In addition to the treatment techniques previously mentioned, blending is a type of “treatment” technique that DDW may approve. However, blending is typically only approved for contaminants that do not pose an acute (immediate) health risk. The previous examples are not a complete list of potential contaminants in drinking water, nor is the information provided an exhaustive explanation. It is a glimpse into drinking water quality providing the reader a background overview.
Secondary Drinking Water Standards
Although Primary Drinking Water Standards are the most important regulations for water professionals, aesthetic quality is still a significant challenge and focus of drinking water providers. Making sure water is safe to drink is critical but if customers do not like the taste, odor, or color of the water they are likely to think that the water is unsafe and not fit for cooking and drinking. Therefore, it is important for water utilities to respond and take seriously all customer complaints, have a good preventive maintenance program, collect samples routinely and comply with all regulatory requirements. However, even the most diligent utilities can experience aesthetic water quality problems. Some aesthetic quality problems can be addressed by routine flushing and preventive maintenance programs, but some are the result of certain naturally occurring conditions and can only be removed through treatment and/or blending.
With varying sources of supply, comes varying water quality. Aquifer formations made up of limestone would tend to have higher levels of calcium, while other geologic formations might contribute other minerals such as magnesium, sodium, and potassium to name a few. Therefore, the quality of water in Los Angeles can be completely different than the water quality in Phoenix. However, in the United States all water must meet the minimum federal and state drinking water standards.
Common Aesthetic Issues with Drinking Water
Although the United States has some of the safest drinking water supplies in the world, sometimes little effort is focused on the aesthetic qualities. A crystal clear glass of water may not be safe to drink because it can have harmful tasteless and colorless contaminants in it. At the same time, discolored water with a bad smell and taste can be perfectly safe to drink. Everyone wants safe water to drink but it is usually the aesthetic qualities that determine if we will drink the water. Many times when people are asked why they drink bottled water instead of tap water, their answer is usually “because it tastes” better.
So why does some water look, taste, and smell bad? There are various things that can cause aesthetic issues with drinking water. The following scenarios provide just a few common issues facing water utilities. Please note that each scenario only reflects typical responses to common problems. They are meant as examples only.
- Scenario 1 - A customer calls their local utility complaining of a slight yellow color to the water. What can cause this discoloration? What should the utility tell the customer? As mentioned previously, all water quality complaints should be treated with concern and taken seriously. A common first response from a water quality professional might be, “Is the discoloration coming from all the faucets in the home?” This simple question will help determine if the problem is coming from the customer’s internal plumbing system or if it is coming from the water being served by the utility. If the discoloration is coming from all faucets, then the next step would be to check the water coming into the home. Sometimes the utility will send someone out to investigate, while other times the homeowner can be asked to flow the water at the front hose bib to check for discoloration. Usually the answer from the customer is the discoloration is only coming from a certain faucet or area in the home. A common source of the discoloration is from older galvanized internal plumbing systems. Sometimes a bathtub or sink is not used very often and iron from the internal plumbing system can leach out and cause a brown/yellow discoloration. A common suggestion to the homeowner would be to run the faucet for a while until the discoloration clears up.
- Scenario 2 - A customer calls complaining of cloudy water. Cloudiness or “milky” looking tap water is commonly entrapped air in the water. A test that water quality professionals ask the customer to try is to fill up a clear glass and set it on the counter. If it is air then the cloudiness will begin to clear from the bottom of the glass up. This is because the air bubbles will rise into the atmosphere.
- Scenario 3 - Sometimes customers will call and complain about odors. Customers will often call saying their water smells like a “pool.” Chances are something has changed in the distribution system or with the disinfection process. Drinking water is commonly disinfected with chlorine or chloramines. The switch from one to the other can cause “pool” chlorine type of orders. Or if water usage demands in the system have changed these same odors can be present for a short period of time.
No matter what the customer complaint is, all water professionals need to be honest, provide specific detail and help, and if they are ever uncertain of the solution to the customer’s concern, tell them they will need to investigate the issue and will provide them with a response as soon as possible.
As you can see, drinking water quality regulatory compliance is a complex and detailed area of the drinking water industry. However, regulations are readily available and government regulators are typically very helpful and responsive to questions from utilities. Water professionals and regulators alike should have the same goal of providing the public with a safe and reliable supply of drinking water.


8.3: Social Contexts- Peers, Family, and Media in Middle Childhood
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the nature of friendship s and peer status in middle childhood
- Discuss the influence of family during middle childhood
- Describe features of aggression and bullying in middle childhood
- Analyze the positive and negative aspects of media use in middle childhood
Colton and Parker have been best friends since first grade. Now in fifth grade, they are inseparable. Colton always helps Parker when she needs extra help with schoolwork, and Parker always helps Colton when he is feeling shy and nervous around other kids. Despite their differences, Parker and Colton have a lot in common; they grew up on the same street and both enjoy skateboarding, eating pizza, and telling jokes.
Lately, Parker has had problems with a bully at school, who has been teasing her about her long braids. Colton has helped Parker stand up to the bully, supporting her when she’s feeling down. Thanks to their friendship, Parker has felt more resilient and braver.
A new streaming channel in which skateboarders try tricks on logs has captivated the two friends. Parker really wants to go skateboarding in the woods after school, but Colton is nervous that skating on logs and tree stumps might be more dangerous than the videos let on. He’s trying to come up with a way to convince his friend to stay at the skate park where there are other people around.
In this unit, you learn more about friendships, bullying, and the role of the media in the elementary school years.
Friendships and Peer Status
Our capacity to form and develop friendships changes in middle childhood in some fundamental ways. Proximity and similarity are still important criteria for friends, but similarity is no longer superficial or based on just demographic characteristics (Afshordi & Liberman, 2021). In middle childhood, children begin to select friends with shared interests (Afshordi & Liberman, 2021), like favorite music, shows, and hobbies, but they also rely on social cognition and relationship skills. Children who display high levels of empathy, altruism, and cooperation tend to attract more friends and playmates. A child who is outwardly aggressive or extremely withdrawn and shy may be overlooked as a possible friend or struggle with loneliness. Friendships in middle childhood can be particularly helpful in the goal of finding acceptance and inclusion and learning the rules of social and emotional engagement (Parker & Gottman, 1989).
Friendships grow in middle childhood as children begin to focus more on having positive, reciprocal friendships and developing trust with varying degrees of friendship (Maunder & Monks, 2019). Friendship has several functions: (1) it provides children with a sense of self-worth and value, (2) it is associated with learning new social and emotional skills and finding new interests, (3) it promotes resilience in children by providing companionship and support, and (4) it influences development through shared cultures and experiences (Bukowski, 2001; Parker & Gottman, 1989). Children who have at least one close friend at this age are more likely to display confidence, emotional stability, and positive coping techniques (Maunder & Monks, 2019). They also tend to have high levels of academic achievement, cognitive focus, and problem-solving and perspective-taking skills. Finally, children with more friends are more likely to experience high peer status, peer acceptance, and wider opportunities for play and inclusion (Maunder & Monks, 2019).
One way for researchers to assess peer status is to use research on peer social evaluations (van den Berg et al., 2015). Children receive a copy of their class roster and are asked to select all the classmates with whom they like spending time, and those with whom they dislike spending time. Researchers then count the number of positive and negative nominations given to each child and sort them into four categories: popular, rejected, controversial, or peer-neglected (Figure 8.6). (The classifications are not shared with the children and are used only for research purposes.) Children who receive many positive and few negative nominations are considered to be popular or well-liked in their classroom. In this context, a popular child describes a child who receives multiple positive nominations indicating that they are liked by many children. These children tend to display more prosocial and cooperative behaviors, have a high level of empathy, and apply positive coping techniques.
Those who receive few positive and many negative nominations are considered to be a rejected child by their peer group and might be actively excluded, victimized, bullied, and ridiculed. Sometimes rejected children display high levels of aggression and hostility or low levels of cooperation. Or they may have a visible disability, a developmental delay, or poor hygiene or belong to an ethnic, linguistic, or gender minority. Children who experience peer rejection are at risk of developing higher levels of depression, loneliness, and isolation (Sakyi et al., 2015). However, when rejected children have at least one good reciprocal friendship , they may be protected from these negative risks (Pedersen et al., 2007). Peer rejection that is the result of bias and social exclusion can also be prevented through creating a positive and inclusive school environment (Lynn Mulvey et al., 2017).
Children with a high number of both positive and negative nominations are well-liked in their peer group but strongly disliked by some others. They are considered a controversial child and may be more likely to use relational aggression to covertly intimidate some classmates while behaving cooperatively with others (van den Berg et al., 2015). They may be class leaders who are noticed by everyone, trendsetters, outspoken children, class clowns, or those whom some aspire to be like.
Children who receive a smaller number of both positive and negative nominations are categorized as an average child , which puts them in the largest category. Finally, children with a low number of positive and negative nominations are considered to be a peer-neglected child . They are more likely to be shy, quiet, and withdrawn from the peer group. Although they do not have bullies or enemies, they do not have friends or close allies either. They may be new to a school or have a high level of absenteeism and thus be relatively unknown by others. Early research speculated that children who experience peer neglect may also feel higher levels of anxiety, loneliness, and isolation (Newcomb et al., 1993). However, more recent research has found that peer-neglected children may actually look much more like the average or popular children and are simply nominated less (Marinucci et al., 2023; Muñoz–Silva et al., 2020).
Parents play a role in establishing the way their children are perceived by their peers. Essentially, children generalize to their peers the social behaviors they learned with their parents. In particular, the parenting style children experience influences their relationships with their peers (Rose et al., 2022). Children who have authoritarian parents (strict and harsh) tend to be less popular than children with authoritative parents (warm and responsive). The quality of friendships in children has also been linked to the quality of attachment they had with their parents earlier in life (Wong et al., 2020). Children who had a secure attachment with a parent have more positive peer relationships (Delgado et al., 2022).
Family Influences
Although peers grow more influential during middle childhood as children strive toward greater independence, family dynamics, family structure, and sibling relationships still have significant impacts on development.
 However, parents continue to exert social influence in the lives of their children. Parents’ primary role is now nurturing rather than providing companionship (Schacter & Margolin, 2019), and they tend to spend time with their children engaged in homework and tasks around the house. These interactions help children learn important life skills. Parents also tend to guide children differently than when the children were younger. They may begin to give them more of a say in the decision-making process (Lansford, 2022). For example, they may allow a child to provide ideas about when they will complete homework and chores.
Parents continue to play an important role in the well-being of children across a variety of family types (Fallesen & Ghler, 2019). Strengths in parenting and families that contribute to child well-being include frequent positive interactions and shared family time, parental flexibility, parent-child communication, and parental support of children’s self-regulation (Buehler, 2020). For example, children whose parents are active in their lives (such as spending time together in fun activities and helping with homework (Figure 8.7)) tend to have better self-reported well-being (Li & Guo, 2023). Additionally, open family communication reduces perceived stress and is related to lower parent-child conflict in middle childhood and adolescence (Jiménez et al., 2019).
An authoritative parenting style, high in both warmth and structure, is associated with healthier child outcomes (Baumrind, 1991). For example, in both European and Latin American countries, high parental warmth, whether authoritative or indulgent, was associated with healthier child self-concept and better emotional development than low warmth parenting styles (Fuentes et al., 2022). Parents begin to play new roles in children’s lives by scaffolding children in taking more responsibility for themselves and granting children greater autonomy as they near the end of middle childhood (Benito–Gomez et al., 2020; Huston & Ripke, 2006). As a result, parents are likely to benefit from being flexible to the changing needs of their children in this stage by maintaining support while providing children with some freedom to become more independent (Teuber et al., 2022).
Family Structure
Since 1960, the number of children living in households with two parents has steadily decreased. In 2019, about 70 percent of households with children had two parents, 26 percent had a single parent, and 4 percent had a grandparent or other nonparent as the primary caregiver.
Many single-parent households are the result of divorce, although the death of a parent, adoption, and parenthood through sperm donation or surrogacy also account for some. Children in single-parent households are more likely to live in poverty (Damaske et al., 2017) and to have physical and mental health problems, behavior problems, and poorer academic achievement (Taylor & Conger, 2017). However, most are well-adjusted, particularly when the parent is single by choice (Golombok & Tasker, 2015).
A growing number of children are being raised by parents who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer (LGBTQ+) (Gates, 2015). Although most are the biological children of their parents, LGBTQ+ parents are more likely to adopt children. Research on adopted children who have faced adversity also shows these children often show resilience following adoption at similar levels (Costa et al., 2021). Research has found no differences between the development or psychosocial adjustment of children with same-sex parents and that of other children (Patterson, 2017).
Other family structures include blended and multigenerational families. Blended (or step) families consist of a couple who has at least one child from a previous marriage. In 2019, approximately 7 percent of U.S. children lived with at least one stepparent, and 17 percent lived with at least one half-sibling (Anderson et al., 2022). This structure may present some unique challenges for children. They must develop new relationships with the stepparent and possibly with stepsiblings as well. They may also experience a more complicated family structure or guidelines (Jensen & Sanner, 2021). Stepparents and biological parents may also disagree about parenting decisions, which can lead to conflict. As with many other family structures and types, there can be a wide range of levels of closeness between caregivers and children. When children in blended families face many transitions resulting in instability and a lack of closeness with a caregiver, it can reduce their overall well-being (Raley & Sweeney, 2020). However, when children feel close to their caregiver and have greater family stability, they have greater emotional and social well-being.
Multigenerational families consist of households in which three or more generations live together. Over the past two decades, the number of such households in the United States has increased, due in many cases to financial pressures. Approximately 7.2 percent of family households in the United States were multigenerational in 2020, and 8.4 percent of children under the age of eighteen years lived with their grandparents (U.S. Census, 2023). Multigenerational households are becoming more common and may offer extra support to all members of the family in cognitive functioning and social and emotional support (Lee et al., 2021).
Sibling Relationships
Almost 80 percent of U.S. children have one or more siblings (Gao, 2015), and as they grow into middle childhood, they increasingly spend more time with siblings than with parents. Siblings are a major influence on child development.
Although there can be many benefits to having a sibling, sibling relationship s can also have a negative impact. Sibling rivalry may increase during middle childhood because children are engaged in more social comparison (Geerts–Perry et al., 2021). However, sibling conflict can be associated with behavior problems and poorer mental health (Buist & Vermande, 2014). Sibling conflict and aggression tend to increase when there is conflict or other adversity in the family such as death or illness (Tucker et al., 2019). But sibling relationships can also be a source of social support and a helpful context for learning social skills such as conflict resolution (Paine et al., 2022) (Figure 8.9). A warm and friendly social relationship is linked to fewer behavior problems and more prosocial behaviors (Geerts–Perry et al., 2021). When families have higher levels of warmth and communication, siblings are more likely to have less conflicts and better sibling relationships.
For children who grow up with no siblings, most research shows similar outcomes.  As with many of the various family structures, a great deal of child and family well-being depends more on parenting choices, styles, and stability than on a particular family structure.
Aggression
Although aggression typically decreases during middle childhood, some children continue to be aggressive into adolescence (Evans et al., 2021). Aggression can be either proactive or reactive (Lohbeck, 2022). In proactive aggression , aggression is intentional and committed with the intent to harm; it is believed to be learned behavior. Children who engage in it typically use aggression with a goal in mind, such as bullying another child to establish social dominance. In contrast, reactive aggression is unplanned and happens in response to either real or imagined provocation, typically when a child is frustrated or angry.
Aggression can also be either physical or relational (Murray–Close et al., 2024). The inflicting of intentional harm on others or property, or the intimidation of or threat of harm to people and property is physical aggression . Children in middle childhood also begin to experience relational aggression , which consists of behaviors that can hurt social relationships such as gossip, the starting and spreading of rumors, exclusion by peers, and threats to end a friendship or relationship (Swit & Slater, 2021). Although physical aggression peaks during early childhood and then decreases, relational aggression is more likely to be stable (Blakely–McClure & Ostrov, 2016). Girls tend to experience more relational aggression, which is more associated with poorer self-concept (Björkqvist, 2018). Boys and girls use verbal aggression at similar levels, though there are slight gender differences in other forms of aggression with boys engaging in more physical aggression, while girls engage in more indirect aggression (Björkqvist, 2018; Blakely–McClure & Ostrov, 2016).
Aggression in children can be the result of many different problems. In middle childhood, physical aggression typically happens during free play, when children can choose their own activity and therefore may need to negotiate or resolve conflict on their own. For instance, if a group of children playing on a field disagree over whether a score should be counted, yelling, pushing, and shoving might occur. Children who have a tendency to act out or react with hostility and who experience peer rejection are more likely to display aggression (Yue & Zhang, 2023). Children with parents who use harsh punishment are also more likely to be aggressive (Waller et al., 2018).
Physical aggression also occurs when children are frustrated (Murray–Close et al., 2024), such as when they leave a smaller school for a larger one, as happens in some school districts at the sixth-grade transition between elementary and middle school. Younger students might be intimidated by the older ones in higher grades or even by students from other elementary schools who are jostling for the popular statuses. Aggressive behavior may result as children sort out their social status rankings in this new setting.
Jealousy of others is a common social emotion in middle childhood, but a child who responds by attacking another’s reputation or threatening to withhold or harm friendships may feel particularly insecure in their relationships with others (Long & Li, 2020). Children who display higher levels of relational aggression are more likely to be controversial or have prominent peer status, to have high but fragile self-esteem, and to desire to be dominant or a leader among their peers (Weidmann et al., 2024).
Children who are victimized by relational aggression tend to feel betrayed, alone, and isolated and to develop a lack of trust in others (Swit & Slater, 2021). However, perpetrators of relational aggression are at risk of forming only superficial relationships with others, feeling paranoid, and lacking trust in others (Swit & Slater, 2021). Children can cope with peer victimization by seeking support, building positive relationships, practicing assertiveness, and using coping techniques such as deep breathing, mindfulness, and talking about their feelings to manage the emotional impact of poor peer interactions. Improving children’s self-concept may also be a promising way to reduce both the negative impact of relational aggression and the likelihood of children engaging in relational aggression (Blakely–McClure & Ostrov, 2016).
Bullying
Encountering one act of physical or social aggression is an unpleasant and harmful experience. However, bullying is a repetitive pattern of social and/or physical aggression in which a person with more power harms another with less (Gladden et al., 2014). There are several types of bullying, including physical, verbal, and cyberbullying . Bullying is fairly common during childhood. Almost 35 percent of U.S. children report being bullied at least one to two times in the last twelve months, according to the Data Resource Center for Child and Adolescent Health 2021–2022 data (Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative, 2024).
Physical bullying consists of bodily harm, property damage, or the threat of harm to coerce, control, or scare others (Armitage, 2021). Verbal bullying is calling another person names, demeaning them, and trying to cause emotional harm (Armitage, 2021). Finally, cyberbullying makes use of technology, online images, videos, and texts to cause emotional stress in another person (Armitage, 2021). Children often have regular access to multiple devices such as cell phones, computers, tablets, and video game systems that can be used for cyberbullying (Evangelio et al., 2022). Cyberbullying differs from more traditional forms of bullying in several important ways: (1) the digital platform can reach a wider audience, which increases the potential for a negative impact on the victim; (2) it can be anonymous, which makes it easier to be a perpetrator and a victim; and (3) the bullying act is more permanent because it can remain in cyberspace indefinitely (Olweus & Limber, 2018). For example, a demeaning video can be watched repeatedly and quickly reach a large audience. The impersonal nature of the computer screen can also desensitize users to others’ feelings and increase boldness in otherwise timid or cautious individuals.
Link to Learning
Since bullying increases during middle childhood, caregivers should have strategies to help. The Choose Kindness Project parent playbooks provide resources for parents and caregivers of both children who are bullying and those who are being bullied.
Children who are victimized by cyberbullying as well as more traditional forms of bullying are more likely to experience symptoms of depression and anxiety, to have low self-esteem and more suicidal ideations, and to demonstrate lower academic performance (Evangelio et al., 2022). Bullying can also have a negative impact on physical health and sleep and eating patterns (Armitage, 2021).
Intersections and Contexts: Bullying Around the World
Across the world, almost one-third of students have been bullied at school in the past month (UNESCO, 2019). Physical bullying tends to be the most common, except in Europe and North America where relational, also known as psychological, bullying is most prevalent. Cyberbullying is prevalent as well, with older children being more at risk (UNESCO, 2019). 3 Some children are also more likely to be victims of bullying regardless of where they live. In particular, girls, children with disabilities, LGBTQ+ children, and refugee children experience higher levels of bullying and violence in schools (Human Rights Watch, 2020). 4 In some places, teachers perpetrate the bullying; in others, the school and teachers do not have the training or resources to respond effectively (Human Rights Watch, 2020).
Bullying can also extend to other forms of aggression and violence. Children are also often victims of sexism, homophobia, transphobia, and ableism in schools in many countries of the world. Human Rights Watch suggests that governments need to pass binding laws to keep students safe in school and online. The organization further calls for greater coordination between child protective and health-care services as well as anonymous and widespread reporting services.
A growing form of bullying globally is cyberbullying. A survey conducted in thirty countries found that one in three children report having been a victim of online bullying, and 20 percent said they had skipped school because of cyberbullying and violence (UNICEF, 2019). Social media is the most common place children are bullied online. Despite commonly held beliefs that cyberbullying among school-aged children primarily occurs in higher-income countries, 34 percent of children in sub-Saharan Africa say they have been victims (UNICEF, 2019). To combat this growing problem, the United Nations Children’s Fund is calling for new policies to protect children, for social media companies to address the problem, and for teachers and parents to be trained to prevent and respond to bullying (cyberbullying and traditional bullying).
The school climate can affect bullying behavior; for example, a school that enforces a strong punishment without rehabilitating bullying behavior tends to increase rather than decrease the behavior (Gaffney et al., 2021). Some more effective bullying programs focus on a tiered approach to shifting bullying interventions away from punishment and toward school-wide prevention instead (Craig & Pepler, 2007). The first tier of action encourages the entire school community—students, teachers, principals, and other staff—to speak out about bullying, to intervene in bullying cases, and to establish secure ways of reporting bullying. The second tier focuses on specific groups of students who may be at heightened risk for engaging in bullying behavior. Workshops, guest speakers, and curriculum events are aimed at developing healthy relationship skills and lowering the risk of bullying. Finally, the third tier consists of rehabilitation, social skills training, and psychotherapy for students who have exhibited high levels of bullying behavior and those who have been victimized.
Researchers found that the most effective way to prevent bullying in children is to educate and train adults who work directly with children to recognize and respond immediately and appropriately to incidents of bullying (Pepler & Cummings, 2016). Effective programs are more likely to reduce bullying when multiple forms of intervention are used and when peers and parents are included in working to reduce and prevent bullying in schools (Gaffney et al., 2021).
Media Influences in Middle Childhood
Media influences our views on clothes and fashion trends, politics, science, social issues, gender, race, money, and other topics. Researchers strive to learn how children consume digital media , demographic differences in their consumption habits, and the impact of digital media on their development.
Use of Digital and Social Media
Media use has increased dramatically over the past decade. About 50 percent of U.S. children have their own smartphone by the age of ten years (Richter et al., 2022), 86.7 percent of ten-year-olds regularly use the internet, and many children begin regularly using social media during middle childhood (Pew Research Center, 2018). A large number watch more television than the amount recommended by psychologists and pediatricians (no more than two hours per day) (Scherger, 2023). Children also regularly stream videos and engage with interactive apps on their devices. Common Sense Media (2022) reported a 17 percent increase in entertainment screen use by both preteens and teens from 2019 to 2021 up to around five and a half hours per day. Radesky et al. (2020) found that only a third of parents could accurately estimate the amount of screen time to which their children are exposed.
While the terms digital media and social media may be used interchangeably in everyday usage, they are different. Digital media is any electronically distributed content and can include material on search engines like Google and marketplaces like Amazon. Social media is a type of digital medium consisting of “interactive technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression through virtual communities and networks” on a mass level (APA, 2024). That includes platforms like YouTube, TikTok, Instagram, Facebook, and others.
Boys and girls spend about the same amount of time using digital media, but they use different types (Cardoso–Leite et al., 2021). Boys report spending more time on screens overall, particularly playing video games and watching videos, while girls average more time screen time for socialization such as texting and video chatting (Nagata et al., 2022). There are also racial differences. Black and Hispanic children spend more time with screens than White or Asian children (Nagata et al., 2022). 5 Higher screen use by children is also found when the parents use screens heavily themselves and in lower income households (Nagata et al., 2022).
Viewing online videos was reported to be the favorite activity, more than playing video games, visiting social media, browsing websites, creating content, or video chatting. Social media use among preteens increased greatly between 2019 and 2021. Some of this rise was likely due to the COVID-19 pandemic, when many children stayed connected to peers through digital means. However, screen time has not dropped since COVID-19 restrictions were lifted (Hedderson et al., 2023). Of interest though, children are using screen time in a variety of ways including recreational viewing, socializing and video chatting with friends and family, and for educational uses including educational games or completing schoolwork remotely (Hedderson et al., 2023).
Impact of Digital Media
Parents, teachers, and other concerned adults may wonder about the influence of hours of screen time on a variety of child characteristics like attention, cognition, social skills, relationship building, and communication. Empirically measuring such effects and drawing scientific conclusions about them are difficult for several reasons. However, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) has funded several studies to measure the impact of screen time on child development (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development – Director’s Corner, 2023; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development – Director’s Corner, 2024).
Research has identified several risks associated with excessive screen time . For example, higher screen use was associated with more obesity in children and adolescents because children are more sedentary and snack more while using screens (Tripathi & Mishra, 2020). Media use is also associated with attention problems and lower academic performance, particularly when children are multitasking (using multiple forms of media simultaneously, like listening to music while interacting with peers on social media) (Cardoso–Leite, 2021). Finally, time spent using digital media has also been linked to mental and physical health problems including depression, social anxiety, and sleep difficulties (Eirich et al., 2022).
Still, there are benefits to interacting with digital media, including exposure to new ideas and easy access to information and awareness of current events (Reid et al., 2016). Screen time in school was related to positive learning outcomes when the screen time had a clear pedagogical purpose with appropriate lesson planning (Pitchford & Outhwaite, 2019). Digital media also allow students to interact and collaborate with each other on school assignments and other projects (Reid et al., 2016). Children and adolescents looking for a community when they feel excluded use social media to connect with others. For example, LGBTQ+ children have used social media to find social support (Fish et al., 2020). Some research shows that playing video games is associated with faster reaction times and better mental health (Cardoso–Leite et al., 2021).
Life Hacks: Evaluating Children’s Use of Video Games
Children are growing up in a digital world. More than 90 percent of children over the age of two years regularly play video games (Alanko, 2023). During middle childhood, many spend one and a half to two hours a day in this activity, in addition to interacting with screens and digital media in other ways.
The answer is complicated. First, research shows some clear benefits to playing video games. When played with others, they are helpful for making social connections, learning social skills, and improving cognitive skills (Kovess–Masfety et al., 2016). However, if too much time is spent on video games, less is available for other important and healthy activities like doing schoolwork, interacting with family, engaging in physical activity, and getting enough sleep (Oliveira et al., 2020). The stimulation from video games can also overload children’s sensory systems.
For these reasons, experts, including the American Academy of Pediatrics (Hill et al., 2016), recommend setting some limits on how much time children play video games. Caregivers should ensure that children are still engaging in family meals or other family time, completing their chores and homework, and getting enough exercise through active play. Unstructured play time is very beneficial, so caregivers should also ensure that children have enough media-free time to engage in creative, imaginative activities. Finally, caregivers should also familiarize themselves with the video games their children are playing, to ensure the content is age appropriate. The Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) provides ratings on physical games and apps to which children might be exposed and can be a helpful tool for caregivers.
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15: What Curriculum Looks Like for Infants and Toddlers
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
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Distinguish how curriculum planning for infants and toddlers is unique from planning for older children
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Describe typical infant and toddler development
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Explain how relationships are the basis for learning and development during infancy and toddlerhood
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Discuss the overarching principles of planning curriculum for infants and toddlers
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Connect how infants and toddlers learn to specific ways caregivers and teachers can facilitate that process
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Relate the role of observation in curriculum planning for infants and toddlers
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Summarize how to support the foundations in social-emotional development, language development, cognitive development, and perception and motor development during infancy and toddlerhood
A majority of this book is focused mostly on children aged 3 to 5 years. But, it is important to note how curriculum for the youngest children is a bit different. While the content in this chapter could, and often is, the focus on an entire class, this chapter will highlight some important considerations when planning and implementing curriculum with infants and toddlers.