11.3: Glance at Genre- Reasoning Strategies and Signal Words
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify and define reasoning strategies and signal words.
- Determine how the rhetorical situation influences the content and reasoning strategies of written works.
As you read in The Digital World: Building on What You Already Know to Respond Critically, rhetorical situation are shaped by the conditions of the communication and the agents involved in that communication. To help you determine the conditions and the agents, you can examine purpose, culture, and audience expectation.
The purpose , or intention, for your writing determines the reasoning strategies you use. For example, if your purpose is to explain why one restaurant is better than another, you likely would use comparison and contrast.
Writers of essays and other formal papers usually support their ideas by using more than one reasoning strategy. For example, within comparison and contrast, they may include description , such as sensory details about the food at the two restaurants; narration , such as an anecdote about why they and their companions went to the restaurants or about something that happened at one of the restaurants; and sequencing , such as the order in which they received their food or the directions to get to the restaurants.
Alternatively, writers may combine some of the six strategies already mentioned. For instance, within the larger structure of comparison and contrast, they may use classification and division when discussing the restaurants’ menus, sorting by main dishes, side dishes, appetizers, soups, salads, and desserts. Therefore, while the essay’s primary purpose may be to compare and contrast, individual strategies within an essay or even within a paragraph may differ.
Recognizing Purpose
Throughout your paper, your purpose for writing should be clear and focused. Your introduction, thesis, topic sentences, body paragraphs (which include reasoning and evidence), and conclusion should all reflect your argumentative or persuasive purpose.
To support and clarify your purpose, you are likely to use the following:
- Analogy: to explain to readers a subject with which they are unfamiliar by comparing a specific trait or traits with those of a more familiar subject.
- Cause-and-effect: to provide a clear understanding of the relationship between an event or situation and/ or what happened because of it, why it occurred, and what might continue to happen.
- Classification and division: to explain a subject by breaking it into smaller parts and explaining the distinctions of the smaller parts or by grouping individual, disparate elements on the basis of certain characteristics to form larger units.
- Compare and contrast: to examine the similarities and/or differences of subjects in order to explain a specific point about their similarity or difference (often an unexpected similarity or difference).
- Problem-and-solution: to indicate a predicament or difficulty and suggest ways to deal with or eliminate it.
- Definition: to illustrate to readers an idea, word, or expression, allowing you to explain a unique meaning of a topic through details and analysis.
Recognizing Audience
Critically thinking about the culture , or common beliefs and lived experiences, of your audience , the people who will read your work, can help you choose an appropriate vocabulary and level of detail.
The culture and audience expectation determine the language you use, the amount and type of information you include, and the way you deliver that information. Determine first what your readers want to know (their expectations), what they already know, and what they do not know. Determining—or at least making an educated guess about—the culture of your audience will aid you in deciding how to use the reasoning strategy you choose and the way in which you present your paper.
Suppose, for instance, your purpose is to persuade your audience to vote for a proposed local ordinance. First, consider the culture of your audience to ensure the language you use clearly explains the terms of ordinance for those who know nothing about it. Also, be sure that you fully understand the issues surrounding the ordinance and how it might have different effects on different groups of people so that what you assert is accurate. Next, again consider the culture of your audience members and what they may or may not know about your topic. For example, they may not know the reason for the proposed ordinance, what might happen if it is passed or not passed, or how it might affect them personally or culturally. If they are not as informed as you are, then include the background information they need to know about it in order for your reasoning strategy and overall argument to be effective.
Figure \(11.5\) Considering the needs and expectations of an audience is key to effective writing. In college, an audience often may consist of your instructor and classmates, but in other situations it may consist of people of more varying ages and backgrounds, like this audience at a town hall meeting. (credit: “Youth and Tobacco Town Hall Meeting” by The U.S. Food and Drug Administration/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
Depending on your audience, you may want to include an analogy to help readers understand connections and particular points in certain ways. An analogy is also useful if the subject is complex. You can make a complex subject more accessible for your audience by comparing it to something familiar.
Recognizing Points
Every point you make in a paper should be meaningful and should relate to the paper’s thesis, its overarching claim or angle. How you make each point is determined by your reason for making that point. In most academic writing, you will use structures that present a thesis at the beginning of the essay. Readers should recognize your thesis because of
- its prominent placement in the essay;
- the language you use leading up to it; and
- the language you use following it.
For example, if your thesis is that the first two years of college should be tuition free for students (that is, tuition should be subsidized by the state), then you might begin your essay with an attention-getting fact stating that the current national student debt is over $1.7 trillion. After that, you might share evidence about the number of students who do not finish a bachelor’s degree but have accrued student loan debt. Finally, you might preview your reasons for the position advocating for free tuition for the first two years of college.
Readers will recognize your supporting points as stated in your paragraph-level topic sentences because of how you discuss them in relation to your thesis. In all of your academic writing, choose language and reasoning strategies that guide readers back to your thesis.
When you present facts, whether in your thesis or in your evidence, remember to cite them properly according to the format your instructor requires. For more about proper citations, see MLA Documentation and Format and APA Documentation and Format.
Structuring Your Reasoning Strategies
To present your reasoning, which is the main part of your essay, try these suggestions for using the six strategies:
Analogy paragraphs often begin with a statement of comparison between two unlike subjects, followed by reasons, explanations, or analyses of their similarities.
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Example topic 1:
compare enrolling as a first-year student to visiting an amusement park for the first time
Example sentence: Enrolling as a first-year student is like visiting an amusement park for the first time in this way: the inexperienced students and park goers must pay a high fee, abide by strict rules, and choose how they spend their adventure. -
Example topic 2:
compare increasing the federal deficit to eating salted peanuts
Example sentence: Increasing the federal deficit is like eating salted peanuts: the higher the increase, the more will be demanded. When you eat salted peanuts, the more you eat, the more you want.
Paragraphs explaining cause-and-effect often begin in one of these two ways: (1) an explanation of the cause(s), followed by an explanation of the effect(s) that happened as a result of the cause(s); or (2) an explanation of the effect(s), followed by an explanation of the cause(s) that led to the effect(s).
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Example topic 1:
how an oil spill affected animals, waterways, and environmental costs
Example sentence: Because an oil spill occurred off the coast of California, the fur and feathers of animals became dangerously matted, waterways were damaged, and the cost of maintaining a clean environment skyrocketed. -
Example topic 2:
how the pandemic affected the population
Example sentence: Because of the pandemic, gas consumption dropped, indoor dining at restaurants declined, and online shopping rose. -
Example topic 3:
how animals, waterways, and environmental costs were affected by an oil spill
Example sentence: The fur and feathers of animals became dangerously matted, waterways were damaged, and the cost of maintaining a clean environment skyrocketed as the result of an oil spill off the coast of California. -
Example topic 4:
how the pandemic affected the population
Example sentence: Gas consumption dropped, indoor dining at restaurants declined, and online shopping rose because of the pandemic.
Classification -and- division paragraphs often begin in either of two ways: (1) Classification paragraphs identify individual items and place them in a larger group; and (2) Division paragraphs break a large group or a single unit into smaller parts.
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Example classification topic:
essential workers during the pandemic included employees in several fields
Example sentence: During the pandemic, essential workers not under quarantine included employees in the fields of health care, childcare, transportation, water and wastewater, and agriculture and food production. -
Example division topic:
how the new superstore will be divided
Example sentence: The layout for the new superstore will be divided into furniture (third floor), household goods and kitchenware (second floor), and men’s, women’s, and children’s clothing (first floor).
When using compare and contrast reasoning, you have choices about the structure to use. Comparison-and-contrast paragraphs identify two subjects and address their similarities and then their differences; or comparison-and-contrast paragraphs identify two subjects and address their similarities and then their differences.
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Example topic 1:
reality television and scripted television
Example sentence: Reality television and scripted television are alike in that both should make money for the network that airs them; however, they differ in the predictability of what the characters do in their roles. -
Example topic 2:
printed book and audio book
Example sentence: A printed book and an audio book are alike in that both present the material the author wrote; one way they differ is that listeners—as opposed to readers—cannot make notes on text in a printed book. -
Example topic 3:
reality television and scripted television
Example sentence: Reality television and scripted television differ in the predictability of what the characters do in their roles, but they are alike in that they both should make money for the network that airs them. -
Example topic 4:
printed book and audio book
Example sentence: One way a printed book and an audio book differ is that listeners—as opposed to readers—cannot make notes on material in the printed book; however, both present the material the author wrote.
You can develop a problem-and-solution paragraph in one of two ways: (1) identify the problem, and then explain a way to solve it; or (2) explain the solution to a problem, and then identify the problem(s) that necessitated it.
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Example topic 1:
student loans
Example sentence: The issue of defaulting on repayment of student loans would be solved by increasing the time the students are given to repay the loans. -
Example topic 2:
campus parking
Example sentence: The issue of the increased need for parking on campus would be solved by paving the area on the corner of Twelfth and Locust Streets to allow parking on that lot. -
Example topic 3:
student loans
Example sentence: By increasing the time in which student loans must be repaid, the issue of defaulting on repayment of student loans would be solved, and students could have more ease of mind to pursue their careers. -
Example topic 4:
campus parking
Example sentence: By paving the area on the corner of Twelfth and Locust Streets to allow parking on that lot, the issue of the increased need for parking on campus would be solved, an eyesore would be beautified, and more students and faculty would get to class on time.
Definition paragraphs often begin by noting the dictionary definition (denotation) of the topic and then illustrating and explaining its unique or extended meaning.
-
Example topic 1:
patriotism
Example sentence: Most people think patriotism is showing devotion to their country; to me, however, it is conducting myself in ways that are respectful to everyone. -
Example topic 2:
independence
Example sentence: Independence means freedom from outside control, but college students often find it brings personal responsibility they had not considered.
Integrating Evidence from Appropriate Sources
Most academic writing is built on the writer’s own ideas as supported by the ideas of others. Regardless of the reasoning strategies you use in an essay, you will usually need to integrate others’ ideas to
- help you explore a topic;
- define, illustrate, explain, or prove an idea;
- help readers think critically about an idea; and
- give strength or credibility to your ideas.
These ideas from others could come from a variety of sources such as print or electronic media or in-person conversations. Similarly, these sources could be either personal (e.g., a conversation you had with someone or an email you received) or public (e.g., available online or in a printed publication). You can read more about finding and using credible sources in Research Process: Accessing and Recording Information and Annotated Bibliography: Gathering, Evaluating, and Documenting Sources.
These models show how writers integrate ideas from appropriate sources into their reasoning strategies.
Analogy
Enrolling as a first-year student is like going to an amusement park for the first time: the inexperienced students or park goers must pay a high fee, abide by many rules, and choose their adventures. Like the cost for riding roller coasters, the cost for taking college classes is great and must be paid before the students start their journey. However, even after paying tuition, students do not have immediate access to whatever class they want to take, just as the park visitor cannot jump on any ride at any time. In the park, certain rides have warnings, such as “You must be at least 60 inches tall to go on this ride.” In college, many classes have prerequisites or require students to have earned a minimum placement score. Also, even though park goers have paid their entrance fees and received armbands that allow them to go anywhere in the park, they are not guaranteed a place on that one awesome ride they have heard so much about. They may have to choose between waiting in a line for hours or doing something else and trying to catch that ride another time. Similarly, college classes have a limited number of seats. Like the roller coaster that everyone wants to ride, college classes close, and students must make another choice. So, while students may not be able to pick up that class that semester, they can try again the next term. Like those starting an adventure at an amusement park, those starting the college journey should have a plan of how they want to fill their time and have a backup plan should they be unable to get every class they want, according to Max Vega, a first-year adviser. Similarly, park goers should use a map to plan their adventure.
Cause and Effect
Because an oil spill occurred off the coast of California, the fur and feathers of many animals became dangerously matted, waterways were damaged, and the cost of maintaining a clean environment skyrocketed. In May 2015, a ruptured pipeline in Santa Barbara County spilled oil along 20 miles of coastline. According to information published by the University of California-Davis, wildlife rescuers were able to save 49 coastal birds, 25 sea lions, and 6 elephant seals (Kerlin, “Wildlife Experience High Price of Oil”). Helping ecosystems recover from oil spills is difficult and can take decades and billions of dollars to recover even partially
Classification and Division
The layout for the new superstore can be divided into furniture (third floor), household goods and kitchenware (second floor), and men’s, women’s, and children’s clothing (first floor). This arrangement allows customers to feel they have control over their shopping experience. Customers shopping for clothes are not distracted by household goods or furniture displays. “By categorizing our merchandise in this manner, we can further subdivide the merchandise on each floor, developing a logical system of separation that repeat customers will learn easily,” said Carla Dawkins, general manager for Hometown Corner Store, in a Curtisville News report (Thurston 2). These subdivisions, Thurston stated, would allow individual floor managers to design the footprint of their floors to create an originality distinct and separate from the other floors (8).
Comparison and Contrast
One way Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth are alike is that both are tragedies written by William Shakespeare; one way they differ is that they explore different themes. In Romeo and Juliet , almost all action centers on the theme of love, whether it is the innocent love between two young people or the protective love of parents for their children. In Macbeth , however, the action centers on ambition. The characters act on their ambitions for themselves and for their country, but excessive ambition is condemned and severely punished (Royal Shakespeare Company, “ Macbeth Analysis”).
Problem and Solution
The issue of the increased need for parking on campus would be solved by paving the area on the corner of Twelfth and Locust Streets to allow parking on that lot. According to an email sent to all students from the provost, Dr. Sandra Kuryakin, the college purchased the corner lot two years ago with the intent of creating more parking spaces. In the email, Dr. Kuryakin adds, “We will break ground in June and plan to have the lot finished before students are back on campus in August, thus solving our parking problem on the west end of campus.”
Figure \(11.6\) Empty lot to be converted to parking spaces (credit: “Columbus-Whittier Peninsula – Northern Tier (BRLF)” by Ohio Redevelopment Projects—ODSA/flickr, CC BY 2.0)
Definition
Most people think patriotism means showing devotion to their country; to me, however, it is conducting myself in ways that are respectful to everyone. Too often, people proclaim themselves as patriots when they are actively seeking to withhold liberties from their fellow citizens or even harm them. When those claiming to be patriots condemn and physically harm others because they do not agree on political issues, they are not showing any reverence for their country. Instead, they dishonor their country by dishonoring its people. Respecting America should mean more than saluting the flag or singing the national anthem. It should mean respecting others’ rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. In light of all this, for me, patriotism means respecting others not only because they are fellow Americans but because they are fellow human beings.
Signal Words and Phrases
Writers use signal words and phrases to steer readers in certain directions. You might use signal words and phrases to give readers clues about
- how one idea connects with another;
- how one paragraph connects with another;
- how one idea supports or refutes another;
- what is to come; • points you want to emphasize;
- illustrations of your topic; or
- similarities or differences you want to emphasize.
Common signal words and phrases for reasoning strategies include these:
Analogy
| accordingly | for instance | in relation to |
| as has been shown | given that | in the same way (that) |
| as noted | granted that | in this way |
| as previously discussed | having established that | ironically |
| as previously mentioned | in addition | paradoxically |
| as . . . so | in contrast | similarly |
| by extension | in fact | specifically |
| compared with | in parallel | the aforementioned |
| for example | in particular | thus |
Cause-and-effect
| because (of) | in order to | since |
| begins with | in that | the reason is |
| for | is caused by | this led to |
| for this reason | leads (led) to | for this reason |
| if this (that) happens | reason |
Effect
| as a consequence | for this reason | outcome |
| as a result (of) | hence | result |
| as expected | it follows that | so (that) |
| because (of) | namely | therefore |
| consequently | on account of | thus |
Classification
| aspects | feature(s) | part(s) |
| characteristics | field | rank |
| classes | form(s) | second |
| classify | genre(s) | set(s) |
| comprises | group(s) | several |
| consists of | kinds | sort(s) |
| dimension(s) | methods | stage(s) of |
| element(s) | numbers | types |
| various | ways |
Division
| another | is composed of | style(s) |
| categor(-ies) | kind(s) | type(s) |
| contain(s) | one | varitey(-ies) |
| first | other | |
| include(s) | sort(s) |
Compare and Contrast
| alike | compared with | same (as) |
| along the same lines | in comparison | share |
| as well as | in like manner | similar(ly) |
| both | in the same way | similar (to) |
| each | is comparable to | the same as |
| equal(ly) | just as | too |
| in common | likewise |
Contrast
| although | but | difference |
| and yet | by (in) contrast | different (from) |
| as opposed to | compared with | either/or |
| better | conversely | even though |
| however | on the contrary | yet |
| instead (of) | on the other hand | so (that) |
| more/less than | unequal | therefore |
| neither/nor | vary | |
| nevertheless | whereas |
Problem
| catch | factors (include) | puzzle |
| challenge | hitch | quandary |
| conundrum | issue | riddle |
| crisis | obstruction | situation |
| difficulty | pose | snag |
| dilemma | predicament | the question is |
| enigma | problem(atic) |
Solution
| a (one) solution | cure | one answer is |
| address | deal with | option |
| alleviate | ease | possibility |
| ameliorate | explain/explanation | probability |
| amend | fix | propose |
| answer | improve | proposition |
| correct | lighten | prospect |
| reason | solution | treat(ment) |
| remedy | solve | way out |
| resolution (resolve) | take care of |
Definition
| according to (source) | for this reason (purpose) | not only . . . but also |
| also | further(more) | on the contrary |
| as a result | however | on the other hand |
| at the same | addition to | otherwise |
| because | in brief | rather |
| besides | in conclusion | similariy |
| but | in fact | since |
| consequently | in other words | so |
| conversely | in particular | such as |
| equally important | likewise | then |
| finally | namelyx | therefore |
| first (second, etc.) | nevertheless | to illustrate |
| for example (instance) | next |
Frequently Used Reasoning Strategies Terms
- Audience: the people who will read your paper.
- Description: writing in which the author attempts to depict certain characteristics of a person, place, or object. Writers describe their subjects by carefully noting details and sensory impressions, such as what the subject looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels like.
- Metaphors: comparison of two unlike elements. For example, the arguing protestors were volcanic, spewing hot, inflammatory speech.
- Narration: telling a story or relating events.
- Point: an important idea to share with the audience.
- Purpose: reason for writing.
- Sequencing: relating information in the order in which something happened or in which steps should be followed.
- Similes: comparison of two unlike elements. The word as or like appears in a simile. For example, the protestors’ arguments were as heated as an erupting volcano.
- Thesis: the overarching and unifying idea of a piece of writing.


3.5: Fast Atom Bombardment and Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
Fast Atom Bombardment and Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry. (1)
Fast Atom Bombardment (FAB) and Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) both use high energy atoms to sputter and ionize the sample in a single step. In these techniques, a beam of rare gas neutrals (FAB) or ions (SIMS) is focused on the liquid or solid sample. The impact of this high energy beam causes the analyte molecules to sputter into the gas phase and ionize in a single step (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Fast Atom Bombardment Source. ). The exact mechanism of this process is not well understood, but these techniques work well for compounds with molecular weights up to a few thousand dalton. Since no heating is required, sputtering techniques (especially FAB) are useful for study ing thermally labile compounds that decompose in conventional inlets (2, 3) .
The most significant difference between FAB and SIMS is the sample preparation. In FAB the analyte is dissolved in a liquid matrix. A drop of the sample/matrix mixture is placed at the end of an insertion probe and introduced to the source region. The fast atom beam is focused on this droplet to produce analyte ions. Glycerol or similar low vapor pressure liquids are typically used for the matrix. Ideally, the analyte is soluble in the liquid matrix and a monolayer of analyte forms on the surface of the droplet. According to one theory, this monolayer concentrates the analyte while the dissolved sample provides a reservoir to replenish the monolayer as the analyte is depleted. Without this constant replenishment from the bulk solution, the ionizing beam will rapidly deplete the analyte and the signal is difficult to observe.
SIMS experiments(4) are used to study surface species and solid samples. Liquid SIMS (LSIMS) is very similar to FAB except cesium ions are used for higher energy collisions. No matrix is used and the ionizing beam is focused directly on the sample. Although this makes sampling more difficult, it is useful for studying surface chemistry. High resolution chemical maps are produced by scanning a tightly focused ionizing beam across the surface and depth profiles are produced by probing a single location (5,6) . Although SIMS is a very sensitive and powerful technique for surface chemistry and materials analysis, the results are often difficult to quantitate.
References
- Barber, M.; Bordoli, R.S.; Elliott, G.J.; Sedgwick, R.D.; Tyler, A.N. Anal. Chem. 1982 , 54 , 645A-657A.
- Fenselau, C. Anal. Chem. 1982 , 54 , 105A-114A.
- Biemann, K. Anal. Chem. 1986 , 58 , 1288A-1300A.
- Day, R.J.; Unger, S.e.; Cooks, R.G. Anal. Chem. 1980 , 82 , 557A-572A.
- Winograd, N. Anal. Chem. 1993 , 65 , 622A-629A.
- Benninghoven, A.; Hagenhoff, B.; Niehuis, E. Anal. Chem. 1993 , 65 , 630A-640A.


11.1: Section 1-
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exploring managerial careers
John Legere, T-Mobile
The chief executive officer is often the face of the company. He or she is often the North Star of the company, providing guidance and direction for the entire organization. With other stakeholders, such as shareholders, suppliers, regulatory agencies, and customers, CEOs often take more reserved and structured approaches. One CEO who definitely stands out is John Legere, the CEO of T-Mobile. The unconventional CEO of the self-proclaimed “un-carrier” hosts a Sunday morning podcast called “Slow Cooker Sunday” on Facebook Live, and where most CEOs appear on television interviews in standard business attire, Legere appears with shoulder-length hair dressed in a magenta T-shirt, black jacket, and pink sneakers. Whereas most CEOs use well-scripted language to address business issues and competitors, Legere refers to T-Mobile’s largest competitors, AT&T and Verizon, as “dumb and dumber.”
In the mobile phone market, T-Mobile is the number-three player competing with giants AT&T and Verizon and recently came to an agreement to merge with Sprint. Of all the consolidation sweeping through the media and telecommunications arena, T-Mobile and Sprint are the most direct of competitors. Their merger would reduce the number of national wireless carriers from four to three, a move the Federal Communications Commission has firmly opposed in the past. Then again, the wireless market looks a bit different now, as does the administration in power.
John Legere and other CEOs such as Mark Cuban, Elon Musk, and Richard Branson have a more public profile than executives at other companies that keep a lower profile and are more guarded in their public comments, often restricting their public statements to quarterly investor and analyst meetings. It is likely that the personality and communication style that the executives reveal in public is also the way that they relate to their employees. The outgoing personality of someone such as John Legere will motivate some employees, but he might be seen as too much of a cheerleader by other employees.
Sometimes the unscripted comments and colorful language that Legere uses can cause issues with employees and the public. For instance, some T-Mobile employees in their call center admonished Legere for comments at a press event where he said Verizon and AT&T were “raping” customers for every penny they have. Legere’s comments caused lengthy discussions in online forums such as Reddit about his choice of words. Legere is known for speaking his mind in public and often uses profanity, but many thought this comment crossed the line. While frank, open communication is often appreciated and leads to a clarity of message, senders of communication, be it in a public forum, an internal memo, or even a text message, should always think through the consequences of their words.
We will distinguish between communication between two individuals and communication amongst several individuals (groups) and communication outside the organization. We will show that managers spend a majority of their time in communication with others. We will examine the reasons for communication and discuss the basic model of interpersonal communication, the types of interpersonal communication, and major influences on the communication process. We will also discuss how organizational reputation is defined by communication with stakeholders.
Sources: Tara Lachapelle, “T-Mobile’s Argument for Sprint Deal is as Loud as CEO John Legere’s Style,” The Seattle Times , July 9, 2018, www.seattletimes.com/busines...nt-for-sprint- deal-is-as-loud-as-ceo-john-legeres-style/; Janko Roettgers, “T-Mobile CEO John Legere Pokes Fun at Verizon’s Go90 Closure,” Variety , June 29, 2018, https://variety.com/2018/digital/news/john-legere- go90-1202862397/; Rachel Lerman, “T-Mobile’s Loud, Outspoken John Legere is Not Your Typical CEO,” The Chicago Tribune , April 30, 2018, www.chicagotribune.com/business/sns-tns-bc-tmobile- legere-20180430-story.html; Steve Kovach, T-Mobile Employees Speak Out and Call CEO’s Recent Rape Comments “Violent” and “Traumatizing”,” Business Insider , June 27, 2014, https://www.businessinsider.com/t-mo...comment-2014-6 ; Brian X. Chen, One on One: John Legere, the Hip New Chief of T-Mobile USA,” New York Times , January 9, 2013, https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/...-t-mobile-usa/ .
1. Understand and describe the communication process.
Interpersonal communication is an important part of being an effective manager:
- It influences the opinions, attitude, motivation, and behaviors of others.
- It expresses our feelings, emotions, and intentions to others.
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It is the vehicle for providing, receiving, and exchanging information regarding events or issues that
concern us.
- It reinforces the formal structure of the organization by such means as making use of formal channels of communication.
Interpersonal communication allows employees at all levels of an organization to interact with others, to secure desired results, to request or extend assistance, and to make use of and reinforce the formal design of the organization. These purposes serve not only the individuals involved, but the larger goal of improving the quality of organizational effectiveness.
The model that we present here is an oversimplification of what really happens in communication, but this model will be useful in creating a diagram to be used to discuss the topic. Exhibit 11.2 illustrates a simple communication episode where a communicator encodes a message and a receiver decodes the message. 1
Encoding and Decoding
Two important aspects of this model are encoding and decoding . Encoding is the process by which individuals initiating the communication translate their ideas into a systematic set of symbols (language), either written or spoken. Encoding is influenced by the sender’s previous experiences with the topic or issue, her emotional state at the time of the message, the importance of the message, and the people involved. Decoding is the process by which the recipient of the message interprets it. The receiver attaches meaning to the message and tries to uncover its underlying intent. Decoding is also influenced by the receiver’s previous experiences and frame of reference at the time of receiving the message.
Feedback
Several types of feedback can occur after a message is sent from the communicator to the receiver. Feedback can be viewed as the last step in completing a communication episode and may take several forms, such as a verbal response, a nod of the head, a response asking for more information, or no response at all. As with the initial message, the response also involves encoding, medium, and decoding.
There are three basic types of feedback that occur in communication. 2 These are informational, corrective, and reinforcing. In informational feedback, the receiver provides nonevaluative information to the communicator. An example is the level of inventory at the end of the month. In corrective feedback, the receiver responds by challenging the original message. The receiver might respond that it is not her responsibility to monitor inventory. In reinforcing feedback, the receiver communicated that she has clearly received the message and its intentions. For instance, the grade that you receive on a term paper (either positive or negative) is reinforcing feedback on your term paper (your original communication).
Noise
There is, however, a variety of ways that the intended message can get distorted. Factors that distort message clarity are noise . Noise can occur at any point along the model shown in Exhibit 11.2 , including the decoding process. For example, a manager might be under pressure and issue a directive, “I want this job completed today, and I don’t care what it costs,” when the manager does care what it costs.
concept check
- Describe the communication process.
- Why is feedback a critical part of the communication process?
- What are some things that managers can do to reduce noise in communication?


2.20: Discussion- Analyzing Marketing Efforts
Step 1: Choose an Organization
Choose an organization that does marketing. Use the guidelines below as you make your selection. Make it easy on yourself and choose an organization you’re interested in, and for which you can observe the marketing efforts.
If you choose a very large organization that markets many different products, focus your paper on one product or product line. For example, if you choose Chevrolet, don’t address trucks but choose a particular model of truck, or Corvettes.
Step 2: Explore the Organization’s Current Marketing Activity
Take a few minutes to research where and how this organization is conducting marketing activities. What marketing tactics and channels is it using? Who is it reaching?
Step 3: Post to the Discussion
Put the following information into your post:
- Company name
- Headquarter location (city, state/province, country)
- Industry
- Web site
- Why you chose this organization
- What marketing efforts you can see the organization doing
Step 4: Respond to Classmates’ Posts
After you have created your own post, look over the discussion posts of your classmates and respond to at least two of them.
Guidelines for Selecting an Organization
Identify an organization working in industry or area that interests you. Choose carefully because during this course, you will create a marketing plan focused on this organization. Think broadly about the type of organization you’d like to focus on. If you choose a very large organization, you’ll need to pick a specific product or service to explore. Small and medium-sized businesses tend to work well.
You’ll need an organization for which plenty of content is available to help you with the analysis you’re trying to do. You may be able to find primary information, or you may need to do research and create informed hypotheses (guesses) based on your research.
The following table lists a number of industries and sample companies you might consider. After this discussion post, you’ll have one week to change your selection if you decide to take a different path for the marketing plan.
| Industry | Organization Examples |
|---|---|
| Healthcare | United Healthcare, Kaiser |
| Entertainment | Dave & Buster’s, Regal Cinemas |
| Banking & Financial Services | Simple, Charles Schwab |
| Sporting Goods | Nike, REI, Bass Pro |
| Clothing, Shoes, Accessories | Guess, Tom’s Shoes |
| Dining, Food Service | Jimmy John’s, Five Guys, Sysco, Kellogg |
| Hospitality | Marriott, Kimpton, Comfort Suites |
| Retail | Zappos, Macy’s, Dollar Tree, Trader Joe’s |
| Packaged Goods | Hershey, Hain Celestial |
| Technology | SpaceX, Snapchat |
| Manufacturing | Boeing, John Deere |
| Transportation | Virgin Atlantic, Carnival Cruise Lines, Uber |
| Automotive | Tesla, AutoNation |
| Business & Consulting Services | VistaPrint, H&R Block, Jackson Hewitt |
| Non-profit or Charitable Organization | Museum of Modern Art, The Trevor Project, Kiva, Wounded Warrior Project |
Grading Rubric for Discussion Posts
The following grading rubric may be used consistently for evaluating all discussion posts.
Discussion Grading Rubric
| Criteria | Not Evident | Developing | Exemplary | Point Value Possible |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Submit your initial response | No post made – 0 pts | Post is either late or off-topic – 2 pts | Post is made on time and is focused on the prompt – 5 pts | Point value possible – 5 pts |
| Respond to at least two peers’ presentations | No response to peers – 0 pts | Responded to only one peer – 2 pts | Responded to two peers – 5 pts | Point value possible –5 pts |
Total Points Possible for Discussion Assignment: 10pts.
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Sample Discussion Grading Matrix. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Discussion: Analyzing Marketing Efforts. Authored by : Larry Chase. Provided by : Tompkins Cortland Community College. Project : Kaleidoscope . License : CC BY: Attribution


2.9: 2.4- IPA symbols and speech sounds
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The following tables give you some sample words so you can start to learn which IPA symbols correspond to which speech sounds. In these tables, the portion of the English word that makes the relevant sound is indicated in boldface type, but remember that English spelling is not always consistent, and your pronunciation of a word might be a little different from someone else’s. These examples are drawn from the pronunciation of mainstream Canadian English. To hear an audio-recording of the sound for each IPA symbol, consult the consonant, vowel, and diphthong charts available here.
The sounds are categorized here according to how they’re produced. You’ll learn more about these categories in
units
2.6, 2.7 and 3.2.
Stops
|
[p]
|
p
each, a
pp
le, ca
p
|
|
[b]
|
b
ill, a
b
ove, ri
b
|
|
[t]
|
t
all, in
t
ernal, ligh
t
|
|
[d]
|
d
ill, a
d
ore, ki
d
|
|
[k]
|
c
ave, ti
ck
et, lu
ck
|
|
[ɡ]
|
g
ive, ba
gg
age, di
g
|
Fricatives
|
[f]
|
ph
one, ra
ff
le, lea
f
|
|
[v]
|
v
ideo, li
v
ely, lo
v
e
|
|
[θ]
|
th
in, au
th
or, ba
th
|
|
[ð]
|
th
ere, lea
th
er, brea
th
e
|
|
[s]
|
c
elery, pa
ss
ing, bu
s
|
|
[z]
|
z
ebra, depo
s
it, shoe
s
|
|
[ʃ]
|
sh
ell, o
c
ean, ru
sh
|
|
[ʒ]
|
g
enre, mea
s
ure, rou
ge
|
|
[h]
|
h
ill, a
h
ead
|
Affricates
|
[tʃ]
|
ch
ip, a
ch
ieve, di
tch
|
|
[dʒ]
|
j
ump, a
dj
oin, bri
dge
|
Nasals
|
[m]
|
m
ill, ha
mm
er, broo
m
|
|
[n]
|
n
ickel, su
nn
y, spoo
n
|
|
[ŋ]
|
si
ng
er, wro
ng
|
Approximants
|
[l]
|
l
amb, si
ll
y, fa
ll
|
|
[ɹ]
|
r
obot, fu
rr
y, sta
r
|
|
[j]
|
y
ellow, ro
y
al
|
|
[w]
|
w
inter, flo
w
er
|
Flap
|
[ɾ]
|
bu
tt
er, pe
d
al (
only between vowels when the second syllable is unstressed
)
|
Front Vowels
|
[i]
|
s
ee
, n
ea
t, p
ie
ce
|
|
[ɪ]
|
p
i
n, b
i
t, l
i
ck
|
|
[e]
|
s
ay
, pl
a
ce, r
ai
n
(
in spoken Canadian English,
[e]
becomes
[eɪ])
|
|
[ɛ]
|
t
e
n, s
ai
d, br
ea
d
|
|
[æ]
|
m
a
d, c
a
t, f
a
n
|
|
[a]
|
f
a
r, st
a
rt
|
Back Vowels
|
[u]
|
p
oo
l, bl
ue
|
|
[ʊ]
|
l
oo
k, g
oo
d, b
u
sh
|
|
[o]
|
thr
ow
, h
o
le, t
oe
(
in spoken Canadian English,
[o]
becomes
[oʊ])
|
|
[ʌ]
|
b
u
s, m
u
d, l
u
nch
|
|
[ɔ]
|
st
o
re, m
o
re, c
o
rn
|
|
[ɑ]
|
d
o
g, b
a
ll, f
a
ther
|
Central Vowels
|
[ə]
|
b
e
lieve, cinn
a
mon, s
u
rround
(
in an unstressed syllable
)
|
|
[ɨ]
|
ros
e
s, want
e
d
(
in an unstressed syllable that is a suffix
)
|
|
[ɚ]
|
weath
er
, edit
or
(
in an unstressed syllable with an r-quality
)
|
|
[ɝ]
|
b
i
rd, f
ur
(
in a stressed syllable with an r-quality
)
|
Diphthongs
|
[aɪ]
|
fl
y
, l
ie
, sm
i
le
|
|
[aʊ]
|
n
ow
, fr
ow
n, l
ou
d
|
|
[ɔɪ]
|
b
oy
, sp
oi
l, n
oi
se
|
|
[ju]
|
c
ue
, f
ew
|


13.5: Surface Energy
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Nanoparticles have a substantial fraction of their atoms on the surface, as shown in the plot at the right. [8] This high surface area to volume ratio is an important factor in many of the physical properties of nanoparticles, such as their melting point and vapor pressure , and also in their reactivity . Heterogeneous catalysts, for example, are often based on nanoparticles because the catalytically reactive atoms are those that are on the surface of the particle.
The surface energy is always positive. A key quantity that is connected with the chemistry of all surfaces is the surface energy . This is the (thermodynamically unfavorable) energy of making "dangling bonds" at the surface. Atoms at the surface are under-coordinated, and because breaking bonds costs energy, surface atoms always have higher energy than atoms in the bulk. This happens regardless of whether the bonding is covalent (as in a metal), ionic (in a salt), or non-covalent (in a liquid such as water). We see this effect, for example, in water droplets that bead up on a waxy surface. The droplet contracts into a sphere (against the force of gravity that works to flatten it) in order to minimize the number of dangling hydrogen bonds at the surface.
In the case of metal or semiconductor particles, strong covalent bonds are broken at the surface. For example, a gold atom in bulk face-centered cubic Au has 12 nearest neighbors, but a gold atom on the (111) surface of the crystal (the most dense crystal plane of gold) has six nearest neighbors in-plane and three underneath, for a total of 9. We might expect the surface energy of this crystal face to be a little less (because the remaining bonds will become slightly stronger) than 3/12 = 1/4 of the bonding energy of bulk Au, and this is in fact a fairly good rule of thumb for many materials. When translated into energy per unit area, the surface energy of metals and inorganic salts is usually in the range of 1-2 J/m 2 .
Example: The sublimation energy of bulk gold is 334 kJ/mol, and the surface energy is 1.5 J/m 2 . What percentage of the bulk bonding energy is lost by atoms at the (111) surface of a gold crystal?
To solve this problem, we need to know the surface area per Au atom. Gold has the face-centered cubic structure, and the unit cell edge length is 4.08 Å. From this we can determine that the Au-Au distance is 4.08/1.414 = 2.88 Å. In a hexagonal array of gold atoms with this interatomic spacing, the surface area per atom is (2.88 Å) 2 x 0.866 = 7.2 Å 2 . Multiplying by Avogadro's number, we find that the area per mole of Au surface atoms on the (111) crystal face is 4.3 x 10 4 m 2 .
Now we multiply this area by the surface energy:
\((4.3 \times 10^{4} \frac{m^{2}}{mol}) \times (1.5 \frac{J}{mol}) \times (\frac{1kJ}{1000J}) = \mathbf{+65 kJ}\) per mole of Au surface atoms.
\(\frac{65 kJ}{334kJ} \times 100 \% = \mathbf {19 \%}\) of the bulk bonding energy is lost by atoms at the surface.
It is clear from this example that the surface energy of nanoparticles can have a major effect on their physical properties, since a large fraction of the atoms in a nanoparticle are on the surface. A good example of this is the dramatic depression of the melting point .
Solid nanocrystals are in general faceted, whereas liquid droplets made by melting nanocrystals adopt a spherical shape to minimize the surface area.
|
A faceted solid nanocrystal melts into a spherical droplet in order to minimize its surface energy. |
Let's consider melting a silver nanocrystal that is 2 nm in diameter, meaning that about 1/2 of the atoms are on the surface. The spherical liquid droplet has lower surface area than the faceted crystal. For example, a cube has 1.24 times the surface area of a sphere of the same volume. If the decrease in surface area is about 20% upon melting, and the surface energy is about 1/4 of the bulk bonding energy of the atoms, then for a 2 nm diameter nanocrystal we would estimate that:
\[\Delta H^{o}_{fusion} \approx \Delta H^{o}_{fusion, \: bulk} - (\frac{1}{2})(0.25)(\frac{1}{4}) \Delta H^{o}_{vap} = \Delta H^{o}_{fusion, \: bulk} - 0.025 \Delta H^{o}_{vap, \: bulk}\]
where ΔH° vap, bulk , the heat of vaporization, is the total bonding energy of atoms in a bulk crystal. For silver, ΔH° fusion, bulk = 11.3 kJ/mol and ΔH° vap, bulk = 250 kJ/mol. From this we can calculate the heat of fusion of a 2 nm Ag nanocrystal:
\[\Delta H^{o}_{fusion} \approx 11.3 - (0.025)(25) = 5.1 \frac{kJ}{mol}\]
The melting point of bulk silver is 962 °C = 1235 K. Assuming that the entropy of fusion is the same in the bulk and in the nanocrystal, the melting point of the nanocrystal should be \(1234K \times (\frac{5.1}{11.3}) = 557K = 284^{\circ} C\), a drop of almost 700 degrees from the bulk value. Experimentally, the melting point of a 2 nm diameter silver nanocrystal drops about 800 degrees below that of the bulk, to 127 °C. [9] This is a whopping big change in the melting point, which is in reasonable agreement with our rough estimate.
The same effect - energetic destabilization of the surface atoms relative to bulk atoms - results in the lower boiling point , higher vapor pressure , higher solubility , and higher reactivity of nanocrystals relative to microcrystals (or larger crystals) of the same material.


3.1: Definitions - Books, Remixes, and TextMaps
Each of the libraries is organized into "bookshelves" (Campus Bookshelf, Bookshelf, Anicllary Materials, etc). It is useful to imagine you are on a campus with many library building, and in each building are just a few bookshelves. On those shelves, we have different types of resources. For our analogy, we often refer to these resources as "books." However, these resources may be called textbooks, textmaps, or courses depending on where they are and what the collection really should be used for.
Within the Campus Bookshelf will be Remixes of other materials from other shelves, including faculty-written materials such as syllabi, schedules, links to ADAPT homework, or even material from other libraries (for instance, a bit of statistics from the stats library within an economics book). These are often referred to as Courses or Course Shells but have the same structure as a book on a bookshelf. Below you can see a few books from a given institution, which are labeled with the course name.
As discussed earlier discussing bookshelves , these courses can contain another unit which consists of the "textbook" for the course.
There are three general classes of texts or textbooks found in the LibreTexts: "Textbooks, "Remixes" and "Textmaps".
- Textbooks are texts that are original content that have integrated content into our library and are identified by "Book:" in their titles.
- Remixes are texts are created from existing OER content although often has topical or extensive editing by the remixing team to customize the text for the needs of an instructor or team of instructors. Constructing Remixes on the LibreTexts platform is facilitated by the OER Remixer tool. The title of the Remix often starts with the campus acronym (e.g., the Chemistry 110A remix at the University of California is "UCD: Chem 110A Introductory Quantum Mechanics") and often will be within a Course Shell as discussed above.
- Textmaps are specialized remixes that are constructed to follow the organization of existing commercial textbooks. Textmaps facilitate adoption by faculty that are unable to switch from a commercial textbook to an OER alternative; these texts are identified by "Map:" in their titles.
There was a court case in 1980 where the complaint was dismissed because, although the structure was the same, the "expression" i.e. writing was distinct. The more recent case from late 2018 says structure is part of the overall picture, and should be considered. It may be copyrightable if it were super creative, but not if it was "indispensable or standard" for the subject matter (494 F. Supp. 218). More from the case: "Similarities in chapter arrangement or structure matter less than the expressive content contain therein. Cf. Morrison v. Solomons, 494 F.Supp. 218, 225 (S.D.N.Y. 1980) (“The significant question is not whether titles of subchapters and chapters are the same but rather whether the explanation or treatment of the subject matter within them is substantially similar.”)."


2.1.1: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Confessions French Romanticism Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the youngest son of a watchmaker, Isaac Rousseau. His mother died shortly after childbirth. It is with his father that he developed a passion for reading. When Rousseau was 10, his father was forced to place with the Lambercier family, to whom he was attached. During his teen years Rousseau attempted to complete an engraving apprenticeship, but ultimately left it. Later on, Rousseau became a record keep for Madame de Warens. This position gave him time to attempt writing and studying philosophy. One of his most successful early pieces was in 1750. A Discourse on the Arts and Sciences or Discours sur les sciences et les arts , was a treatise on how the modern condition had left behind the virtues and morality of earlier life. He would continue with this theme in such works as 1755's Discourse upon the Origin and Foundation of the Inequality Among Mankind ( Discours sur L'origine et les fondements de l'ineqalite ) and 1761's A Treatise on the Social Contract: Or, the Principles of Politic Law ( Du Contrat social: ou, principes du droit politique ). His ideas often placed him on the opposite side of authority figures and religious institutes. Confessions by Jean-Jacques Rousseau is his attempt to catalog his development as an artist and person. The title is a reference to Saint Augustine's Confessions . In his attempt to examine his life and what molded him, Rousseau shares many details of his development and personal preferences that were not commonly discussed in polite society, such as his sexuality and education. Consider while reading:
- How does Rousseau characterize childhood in relation to becoming a young adult?
- What Romantic principles do you see at play in his writing?
- Relationships are at the center of the narrator's life. How do those relationships influence him? What larger points is Rousseau making?
- Rousseau's narrator enjoys a connection to nature. What does he find liberating about it and why?
Written by Laura Ng


1.5: Challenges in Retailing
- Summarize the key challenges facing retailers
In today’s economy retailers are facing a unique set of challenges. It is important to understand what they are as well as how today’s retailer is working to overcome these challenges.
Inventory
Adequate inventory levels are essential for today’s retailer. Having too little or too much can have a dramatic affect on the retailer’s reputation as well as the consumer’s perception. A key example of how low inventory levels can affect the reputation of a retailer is that of Marks & Spencer in 2012. First quarter clothing sales were down 6.8% that year because they didn’t react to accelerated selling on key items. If they had ordered additional inventory to meet consumer demand, they likely would not have lost out on those sales. While having too little inventory is a significant issue in today’s environment you can also have too much inventory that leads to unprofitable markdowns.
Mobile Experience and Engagement
In 2013 mobile was almost 25% ($60 billion) of ecommerce revenue and by 2021 mobile revenue is expected to be $420 billion in the United States. For any retailer that has online operations, mobile engagement must be a significant part of their business. Consumers use their mobile phones for everything from shopping for different prices for products and even shipping costs. In fact, 90% of consumers use smart phones while shopping in stores. So, how can retailers push the envelope here to engage the consumer even more? An example of a company capitalizing on this trend is Walgreens. More than 60% of the retailer’s online traffic is from smartphone devices. Their mobile app includes services such as prescription transfers and Quick Print. In addition, they are partnering with a service called MDLive to provide customers with medical doctors 24/7 via smartphone cameras.
Digital Disruption
Technology is continuously changing the way consumers shop. There are five stages consumers go through whenever purchasing a product. These are
- Need recognition
- Information search
- Evaluating alternatives
- Purchase decision
- Post-purchase evaluation.
Social media sites such as Facebook, and Instagram have revolutionized how fast and to what extent consumers can receive information about products. Consumers can rate products and share with their friend base on these sites and communicate directly with companies. According to a Deloitte report, consumers who utilize social media are four times more likely to make a purchase than those who don’t. In addition, 29% are more inclined to make a purchase the same day.
It is important to note that there are generational differences in how consumers use technology. For example, 47% of millennials are influenced by social media as opposed to 19% of other age groups. This might change a retailer markets using social media based on the product offering and target market.
Watch the video below to gain an understanding of a few other challenges that have a significant impact on today’s retailer. Consider how these are impacting you now as a consumer and an industry professional. What else do you believe could be some other notable challenges in the future and what actions do you believe today’s retailer could take to work through these challenges and stay more competitive in today’s environment as well as that of the future?
You can view the transcript for “What is the #1 Challenge Facing Retailers in 2018?” (opens in new window) .
Contributors and Attributions
- Challenges in Retailing. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- 2018 challenges facing today's retailer. Authored by : Samsung Business USA. Located at : https://youtu.be/liXy2gGQ_x8 . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License


5.6: Chapter Resources
Summary
Biodiversity exists at multiple levels of organization, and is measured in different ways depending on the goals of those taking the measurements. These include numbers of species, genetic diversity, chemical diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Humans use many compounds that were first discovered or derived from living organisms as medicines: secondary plant compounds, animal toxins, and antibiotics produced by bacteria and fungi. Ecosystems provide ecosystem services that support human agriculture: pollination, nutrient cycling, pest control, and soil development and maintenance. Loss of biodiversity threatens these ecosystem services and risks making food production more expensive or impossible. The core threats to biodiversity are human population growth and unsustainable resource use. Climate change is predicted to be a significant cause of extinction in the coming century. Exotic species have been the cause of a number of extinctions and are especially damaging to islands and lakes. International treaties such as CITES regulate the transportation of endangered species across international borders. In the United States, the Endangered Species Act protects listed species but is hampered by procedural difficulties and a focus on individual species. The Migratory Bird Act is an agreement between Canada and the United States to protect migratory birds. Presently, 11 percent of Earth’s land surface is protected in some way. Habitat restoration has the potential to restore ecosystems to previous biodiversity levels before species become extinct. Examples of restoration include reintroduction of keystone species and removal of dams on rivers.
Review Questions
-
Bacteria that feed upon decaying organic matter in the soil would best be described as which one of the following?
- Eukaryotic
- Autotrophic
- Fungi
- Cyanobacteria
- Heterotrophic
-
As Darwin recognized, populations evolve through natural selection when which of the following condition(s) are met?
- Variation of traits among individuals
- Competition for limited resources
- More offspring are produced than can survive
- All of the above
-
You are the world’s foremost expert on lizards. You have traveled the world extensively and have found that a particular species of lizard is found only in one desert near of the Chilean Andes. Which of following terms, with regard to its distribution, can be definitively applied to this species?
- Endangered
- Prokaryotic
- Endemic
- Disbursed
- Clustered
-
Which one of the following is not a major cause of biodiversity loss?
- Habitat loss
- Climate change
- Invasive Species
- Zoonotic diseases
- Overharvesting
-
Which one of the following statements is false?
- There have been five mass extinctions preserved in the fossil record
- Some bacteria are autotrophs
- Current rates of extinction are higher than background extinction rates
- Speciation is the process of creating new species
- All living things can be classified into one of four taxonomic domains
-
During the middle of the 19th century, which scientist independently derived and proposed a theory of evolution that was similar to Darwin’s?
- Gregor Mendel
- Alfred Wallace
- Isaac Newton
- Rachel Carson
- Niels Bohr
-
The study of the distribution of the world’s species both in the past and in the present is known by what term?
- Geology
- Biogeography
- Biodiversity
- Biogeomorphology
- Ecological Succession
-
Which one of the following would be described as anthropogenic?
- Water backing up behind a beaver dam
- The dinosaurs going extinct
- Logging a forest
- A mudslide burying a stream
- A volcanic eruption
-
By definition, what are you most likely to find in a biodiversity hotspot?
- A large abundance of endangered species
- A large number of endemic species
- Mostly eukaryotic species
- Extremophiles
- Heat-loving microbes
-
You are working as a biologist for a team surveying biodiversity in the Amazon rainforest. You find a non-motile organism that grows in the soil, has eukaryotic cells, and is heterotrophic. Which one of the following could potentially describe this species?
- Fungus
- Animal
- Bacteria
- Plant
- Archaea
See Appendix for answers
Attributions
OpenStax College. (2013). Concepts of biology . Retrieved from<EMAIL_ADDRESS>. OpenStax CNX. Available under Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 ( CC BY 3.0 ). Modified from Original.
Page attribution: Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0 . “Review Questions” is licensed under CC BY 4.0 by Matthew R. Fisher.


2.7: Spring Force- Hooke’s Law
Learning Objectives
- Describe the restoring force and displacement.
- Explain oscillatory motion under a spring force.
Newton’s first law implies that an object oscillating back and forth is experiencing forces. Without force, the object would move in a straight line at a constant speed rather than oscillate. Consider, for example, plucking a plastic ruler to the left as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). The deformation of the ruler creates a force in the opposite direction, known as a restoring force . Once released, the restoring force causes the ruler to move back toward its stable equilibrium position, where the net force on it is zero. However, by the time the ruler gets there, it gains momentum and continues to move to the right, producing the opposite deformation. It is then forced to the left, back through equilibrium, and the process is repeated until dissipative forces dampen the motion. These forces remove mechanical energy from the system, gradually reducing the motion until the ruler comes to rest.
The simplest oscillations occur when the restoring force is directly proportional to displacement. This is called Hooke’s law force, or spring force:
\[F=-k x. \nonumber \]
Here, \(F\) is the restoring force, \(x\) is the displacement from equilibrium or deformation , and \(k\) is a constant related to the difficulty in deforming the system. The minus sign indicates the restoring force is in the direction opposite to the displacement.
The spring constant \(k\) is related to the rigidity (or stiffness) of a system—the larger the spring constant, the greater the restoring force, and the stiffer the system. The units of \(k\) are newtons per meter (N/m). Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) shows a graph of the absolute value of the restoring force versus the displacement for a system that can be described by Hooke’s law—a simple spring in this case. The slope of the graph equals the spring constant \(k\) in newtons per meter.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): How Stiff Are Car Springs?
What is the spring constant for the suspension system of a car that settles 1.20 cm when an 80.0-kg person gets in?
Strategy
Consider the car to be in its equilibrium position \(x=0\) before the person gets in. The car then settles down 1.20 cm, which means it is displaced to a position \(x=-1.20 \times 10^{-2} \mathrm{~m}\). At that point, the springs supply a restoring force \(F\) equal to the person’s weight \(w=m g=(80.0 \mathrm{~kg})\left(9.80 \mathrm{~m} / \mathrm{s}^{2}\right)=784 \mathrm{~N}\). We take this force to be \(F\) in Hooke’s law. Knowing \(F\) and \(x\) , we can then solve the spring constant \(k\) .
Solution
-
Solve Hooke’s law, \(F=-k x\), for \(k\)
:
\[k=-\frac{F}{x}. \nonumber\]
Substitute known values and solve \(k\):
\[\begin{aligned}
k &=-\frac{784 \mathrm{~N}}{-1.20 \times 10^{-2} \mathrm{~m}} \\
&=6.53 \times 10^{4} \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{m}.
\end{aligned} \nonumber\]
Discussion
Note that \(F\) and \(x\) have opposite signs because they are in opposite directions—the restoring force is up, and the displacement is down. Also, note that the car would oscillate up and down when the person got in if it were not for damping (due to frictional forces) provided by shock absorbers. Bouncing cars are a sure sign of bad shock absorbers.
Section Summary
- An oscillation is a back and forth motion of an object between two points of deformation.
- An oscillation may create a wave, which is a disturbance that propagates from where it was created.
-
The simplest type of oscillations and waves are related to systems that can be described by Hooke’s law:
\[F=-k x, \nonumber\]
where \(F\) is the restoring force, \(x\) is the displacement from equilibrium or deformation, and \(k\) is the spring constant of the system.
Glossary
- deformation
- displacement from equilibrium
- spring constant
- a constant related to the rigidity of a system: the larger the spring constant, the more rigid the system; the spring constant is represented by k
- restoring force
- force acting in opposition to the force caused by a deformation


26: Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
When you have completed Chapter 26, you should be able to
- fulfill all of the detailed objectives listed under each individual section.
- use the information provided by an amino acid analysis, an Edman degradation and a carboxypeptidase hydrolysis to determine the structure of an unknown polypeptide.
- outline the approach that you would use to synthesize a given peptide, providing appropriate mechanistic details if requested to do so.
- define, and use in context, the key terms introduced in this chapter.
Amino acids are important biochemicals, as they are the building blocks from which proteins and polypeptides are assembled. We begin this chapter with an examination of some of the fundamental chemistry of amino acids: their structures, stereochemistry and synthesis. We then discuss the nature of peptides and of the peptide bond, and present the complex issue of determining the order in which the various amino‑acid residues occur in a given peptide. Once a chemist knows the exact order the of the residues in a given peptide, the next challenge is to determine a method by which the same peptide can be prepared in the laboratory. Thus, two sections are devoted to the problem of protein synthesis. The final sections in the chapter deal with the classification, overall structure and denaturation of proteins.
-
- 26.7: The Edman Degradation
- Edman degradation is the process of purifying protein by sequentially removing one residue at a time from the amino end of a peptide. To solve the problem of damaging the protein by hydrolyzing conditions, Pehr Edman created a new way of labeling and cleaving the peptide. Edman thought of a way of removing only one residue at a time, which did not damage the overall sequencing. This was done by adding Phenyl isothiocyanate, which creates a phenylthiocarbamoyl derivative with the N-terminal.


10.7: Dmitri Shostakovich - Symphony No. 5
One of the most famous pieces of protest music in the European concert tradition might not have been a protest at all. Experts still debate the meaning of Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 5. Some believe that it was a harsh rejection of the totalitarian regime under which he lived and worked, while others are skeptical of this interpretation. Because Symphony No. 5 is a piece of absolute music (instrumental music that does not narrate an explicit story), it can be interpreted in many different ways. While this leaves the message in question, it has also permitted the work to have a powerful impact on generations of listeners.
Music in the Soviet Union
Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975) was born shortly before the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, in which the longstanding Czarist regime was overthrown and the Soviet Union was born. The revolution brought hope to many Russians. Life under the Czars had been difficult for all but the aristocracy, with no chance for upward mobility and little freedom. The new government promised to improve the lot of Russia’s working class, bringing opportunities for education and economic success.
Soon, however, the Soviet Union ran into trouble. After the first decade, economic hardships led to dissatisfaction. At the same time, Joseph Stalin, who had become head of the government followed the death of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin in 1924, set out to consolidate his power. While the Soviet Union was meant to be governed by a committee, Stalin soon had absolute control. Part of his strategy was to deflect blame for the nation’s struggles onto others. In the 1930s, he held a series of public “show trials” in which prominent members of the government were convicted of crimes against the Soviet people. In this way he purged the government of all those who did not support him while positioning himself as an advocate of the people.
This is the environment in which Shostakovich finished his education and began his career. Shostakovich gained international fame at the age of 19, when his Symphony No. 1 was well received not only in the Soviet Union but in Europe as well. At first, unsurprisingly, the young composer produced music in support of the government. Many of his early works explicitly praised Soviet leaders and celebrated the revolution. It seems that he personally felt optimistic about his nation’s future.
The arts, however, faced difficult times under Stalin. Stalin believed in the power of artists to influence public opinion and encourage dissent. For this reason, he went to great lengths to keep creative workers under control. He did so through a combination of censorship, intimidation, and outright murder.
Stalin’s strategy for taking control of the music establishment was very clever indeed. He began in 1929 by reforming the nation’s music conservatories (prestigious schools that trained performers, conductors, scholars, and composers). His first move was to fire the faculty and replace them with partisans. Next he changed the admission standards, such that only students from working-class backgrounds were permitted to attend. These reforms were to be short lived, but he had made his point. When the professors were allowed to return to their posts, they understood that Stalin had total power over their careers (and lives) and were ready to fall into line.
In 1932, Stalin formed the Union of Soviet Composers (USC), a national organization in which all composers were required to participate. The purpose of the USC was to ensure that members only created music that upheld the values of the government and portrayed it in a positive light. Members were required to hold each other accountable and report any deviant behavior to the authorities. With all of the composers living in fear and spying on one another, Stalin was in a position to dictate the messages that were being broadcast in concert halls and opera houses.
All composers were required to uphold the doctrine of Socialist Realism . Exactly what constituted Socialist Realism was never made entirely clear, which is what gave the doctrine its power. Stalin always had the final say concerning any individual work, and his judgment alone could determine whether the composer had met the required standard or not. All artistic works, however, were expected to portray the communist revolution in a positive light. They were to be optimistic and uplifting. And they were certainly not permitted to criticize the Soviet Union or depress the consumer. Stalin also required that concert music be accessible to all citizens, and he preferred that it be based on popular or folk styles. If a musical work was condemned as formalist , then it had failed to achieve these goals, and the composer would face serious repercussions.
Shostakovich’s Condemnation
Following the success of his Symphony No. 1, Shostakovich continued to climb the ranks of Soviet composers. By the 1930s, he was certainly the best known and most influential. When he finally ran afoul of the government, therefore, it was a major event.
In 1934, Shostakovich premiered an opera (his second) entitled Lady Macbeth of the Mtsenk District . The opera was based on an 1865 novella by Nicolai Leskov that centered on Katerina, the neglected wife of a well-to-do merchant. In the novella, Katerina has an affair that ultimately leads to her and her lover committing a series of murders to protect their secret. After they are captured, convicted, and sent to a prison work camp, the man leaves Katerina for another female prisoner. Overcome with fury and grief, Katerina seizes him and leaps into an icy river, where they both perish.
In short, Lady Macbeth of the Mtsenk District featured a typical operatic narrative, full of romance and violence and ending in tragedy. The opera was a huge success in Leningrad and Moscow, performing to enthusiastic audiences for two years. Then, in 1936, Stalin himself attended a performance in Moscow. He had recently attended a performance of Ivan Dzerzhinsky’s opera Quiet Flows the Don —an overtly pro-government work with little artistic merit. (Ironically, much of the opera had been orchestrated by Shostakovich, who stepped in to help his less-adept colleague.) Stalin publicly demonstrated his support, giving the piece a standing ovation and insisting upon meeting the composer. Nine days later, he saw Lady Macbeth . This time, Stalin did not even stay to the end.
The next day, an article entitled “Muddle Instead of Music” appeared in Pravda , the official government newspaper. The article was unsigned, but readers understood that it spoke for Stalin himself. The article began by condemning Lady Macbeth in terms of subject matter and musical expression. The opera celebrated corruption, reveled in degradation, and lacked musical clarity. Next the author began to attack past works of Shostakovich, arguing that he had been working against the doctrine of Socialist Realism for many years. Finally, the article included a clear warning for the composer: If Shostakovich did not mend the error in his ways, he might find himself in serious trouble.
This anonymous article raises some questions. Why did Lady Macbeth come under condemnation two years after it had premiered and after it had been well received? How was it that many of Shostakovich’s pieces that had previously been accepted as “good” were suddenly denounced as “bad”? What was the purpose of this article? Although we can never know for sure, it seems likely that Shostakovich had simply become too successful—and therefore too powerful. With a single anonymous article, Stalin was able to put him in his place.
The article meant an immediate halt to all aspects of Shostakovich’s career. Performances of his work were cancelled and commissions were withdrawn. The composer himself called off the premiere of his Symphony No. 4, which had been about to take place. He lost all standing in the Union of Soviet Composers and was essentially blacklisted.
Shostakovich also feared for his life. In fact, for a month following the publication of the article he spent nights on his porch so that the police would not wake up his children when they came to arrest him. His fears were justified, for many other composers had already disappeared, having been taken away to prisons or work camps. However, the police did not come, and after a time Shostakovich’s thoughts turned to the revitalization of his career. In order to be readmitted to the music establishment, he needed to be formally rehabilitated. This process required a public apology and the creation of a new work that would demonstrate his contrition. With rehabilitation in mind, he began work on his Symphony No. 5.
Symphony No. 5
When Symphony No. 5 premiered in Leningrad in 1937, it was accompanied by another article, this time signed by the composer. The article was entitled “An artist’s creative response to just criticism.” In it, Shostakovich (or, more likely, a government agent writing on his behalf) admitted that he had strayed from the path illuminated by Socialist Realism but proclaimed that he had seen the error in his ways and desired to reform. He described Symphony No. 5 as an autobiographical account of his personal suffering and rebirth, culminating in a return to optimism. The symphony does indeed follow a general trajectory from darkness to light—the same trajectory as Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5, which clearly served as a model (see Chapter 7). The first movement is angsty and tormented. Its jagged melodies and sparse instrumentation seem to portray devastation and hopelessness. The brief second movement is a bizarre waltz. The third and fourth movements, however, bring the listener through catharsis to a possible triumph, and it is these that we will examine closely.
Movement III
According to reports, the audience wept throughout the third movement of Symphony No. 5.20 The music is certainly sorrowful. A dirge-like tempo combines with winding melodies in the minor mode to express an unmistakable despair. Sometimes the instruments imitate speech, as if they are attempting to put into words an emotion that cannot be spoken. Shostakovich’s orchestration is sparse: He includes only strings, harp, and a few solo winds, each of which take their turn with the melody.
|
Symphony No. 5, Movement III. 20. Composer: Dmitri Shostakovich. Performance: San Francisco Symphony, conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas (2009) |
This funeral chant by Pavel Chesnokov is typical of Russian Orthodox music.
However, there is another explanation for the listeners’ reaction. In this movement, Shostakovich captures the sound of Russian Orthodox funeral music.21 This would have resonated with his audience on several levels. To begin with, times were very difficult in the late 1930s, as the Soviet population was devastated by famine and disease. Everyone in the hall knew someone who had died, and everyone was mourning. At the same time, the government had abolished the Russian Orthodox religion and closed the churches. Nobody had heard this music for decades. As such, it also represented the past and all that had been lost. Despite its portrayals of agony, however, the third movement concludes on a note of hope. The final minutes are calm, and the closing chords are in the major mode.
Movement IV
The fourth movement begins with a terrifying crash, as pounding drums introduce a militaristic minor-mode theme in the brass. The music grows in excitement for several minutes before giving way to a period of calm. In this middle section, Shostakovich introduces a quote from a song he had composed years before using a text by the poet Alexander Pushkin. The title of the song is, in fact, “Rebirth,” and it describes the process of peeling away an outer layer accumulated over time to reveal the true substance beneath. After this interlude, the music regains momentum, building to a dramatic major-mode conclusion. It is here, however, that we must pause to debate what this music really means.
| Bernstein | Petrenko | What to listen for |
|---|---|---|
|
0’00 |
0’00” |
The finale starts with a trill in the winds that leads to pounding timpani and an aggressive brass theme; the energy continues to grow as the tempo increases |
|
3’03” |
3’23” |
The tempo slows and the energy dissipates |
|
4’46” |
5’24” |
The violins quote from Shostakovich’s song “Rebirth” |
|
6’40” |
7’42” |
The build to the Coda begins; Bernstein takes a quick tempo from the start, while Petrenko takes a relaxed tempo |
|
8’10” |
10’54” |
The Coda begins; Bernstein’s tempo is more than twice that of Petrenko |
The closing passage of Symphony No. 5 features the ringing, high notes of trumpets, backed up by the entire orchestra. Played at a fast tempo, as it often is, the music is thrilling and triumphant. However, this approach to performing the coda seems to have derived from a misprint in the first published version of the symphony, which indicated a lively tempo of 188 quarter notes per minute. In reality, Shostakovich wanted this passage to be performed at a tempo of 184 eighth notes per minute, which, at less than half of the misprinted tempo, is quite slow. At this speed, the music sounds not triumphant but painful. The trumpet players agonize as they blast out their high notes, while the string players saw back and forth for minutes on end. One can literally hear the suffering of the musicians. When the symphony finally ends, it is with a sensation of exhaustion, not overcoming, as if the orchestra has been beaten into submission. Some commentators have described the passage as a false smile, put on because the authorities have required as much—but not a true representation of joy.
What does it mean?
The controversy over the tempo is only part of the story. For many decades, fans of Shostakovich have wanted to hear Symphony No. 5 as protest music and to believe that the composer was defying the government. They received confirmation in 1979, when Soviet musicologist Solomon Volkov published a book entitled Testimony . Volkov claimed that he had sat with Shostakovich during his final weeks and written down the composer’s reminiscences. In Testimony , Volkov confirmed that Shostakovich had always stood in opposition to the Soviet regime and that Symphony No. 5 was indeed meant to protest its oppressive rule. However, Volkov was almost immediately discredited by Shostakovich’s wife, who said that he and her husband were hardly even acquainted. Few continue to take his account seriously.
The response following the concert was also mixed. Some critics did not feel that Shostakovich had successfully communicated the personal metamorphosis outlined in his article. The third movement, they felt, was simply too sad, while the fourth movement failed to offer the transformative rebirth that was promised. However, the audience was thrilled, and gave the symphony a thirty-minute standing ovation. Perhaps for this reason, the government officially accepted Shostakovich’s apology and declared him rehabilitated. He was able to return to his work—although with the knowledge that Stalin could end his career (and his life) if he failed to keep in line.
The controversy surrounding Symphony No. 5 is possible because of its status as absolute music. On the one hand, it is just a symphony—just music, just sound. It is titled with a number, and the movements are marked only with their tempos. It is therefore impossible to prove that the music is about one thing or another. The symphony’s various contexts, however, which include its role as Shostakovich’s rehabilitation piece, the accompanying article, the musical references, and its expressive language, give us a great deal of material to use in debate. The symphony must be about something. To this day, however, noone has conclusively proven what Shostakovich meant to communicate with his Symphony No. 5.


7: The Unit Circle - Sine and Cosine Functions
The trigonometric functions are functions of an angle. and relate the angles of a triangle to the lengths of its sides. They are important in the study of triangles and modeling periodic phenomena, among many other applications.
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- 7.0: Introduction to The Unit Circle- Sine and Cosine Functions
- A function that repeats its values in regular intervals is known as a periodic function. The graphs of such functions show a general shape reflective of a pattern that keeps repeating. This means the graph of the function has the same output at exactly the same place in every cycle. And this translates to all the cycles of the function having exactly the same length.
-
- 7.1: Angles
- An angle is formed from the union of two rays, by keeping the initial side fixed and rotating the terminal side. The amount of rotation determines the measure of the angle. An angle is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin and its initial side lies along the positive x-axis. A positive angle is measured counterclockwise from the initial side and a negative angle is measured clockwise.
-
- 7.2: Right Triangle Trigonometry
- We have previously defined the sine and cosine of an angle in terms of the coordinates of a point on the unit circle intersected by the terminal side of the angle. In this section, we will see another way to define trigonometric functions using properties of right triangles.
-
- 7.4: The Other Trigonometric Functions
- Trigonometric functions allow us to specify the shapes and proportions of objects independent of exact dimensions. We have already defined the sine and cosine functions of an angle. Though sine and cosine are the trigonometric functions most often used, there are four others. Together they make up the set of six trigonometric functions. In this section, we will investigate the remaining functions.
Thumbnail: The cosine function of an angle tt equals the x-value of the endpoint on the unit circle of an arc of length \(t\).


5.2: Background Reading
It’s wise to do some more reading about that narrower topic once you have it. For one reason, you probably don’t know much about it yet. For another, such reading will help you learn the terms used by professionals and scholars who have studied your narrower topic. Those terms are certain to be helpful when you’re looking for sources later, so jot them down or otherwise remember them. For instance, if you were going to research the treatment of children with coronavirus, this background reading would teach you that professionals and scholars usually use the term instead COVID-19 instead of coronavirus when they write about it. Often, they also use SARS-CoV-2 infection or 2019-nCOV infection to identify the strain. If you didn’t learn that, you would miss the kinds of sources you’ll eventually need for your assignment. Keep in mind your ability to think slowly in order to throughly explore a given topic.
Most sources other than journal articles are good sources for this initial reading, including the New York Times or other mainstream American news outlets, Wikipedia, encyclopedias for the discipline your topic is in (horticulture for the crabapple bud development topic, for instance), dictionaries for the discipline, and manuals, handbooks, blogs, and web pages that could be relevant. This initial reading could cause you to narrow your topic further, which is fine because narrower topics lead to greater specificity for what you want to find out. After this upfront work, you’re ready to start developing the research question(s) you will try to answer for your assignment.
While you are in the background reading phase of your research you will come across a lot of sources and don’t know yet if they will prove useful in the long run. A handy type of software to help you keep track of all your findings is called citation management software. It will also be extremely valuable when it comes to using the resources you end up needing. There are several that are freely available. Take a look at Zotero , Mendeley , or Citavi .
Fuel Your Inspiration
It’s worth remembering that reading, scanning, looking at, and listening to information resources is very useful during any step of the process to develop research questions. Doing so can jog our memories, give us details that will help us focus, and help us connect disparate information–all of which will help us come up with research questions that we find interesting. The time spent exploring your topic will aid the direction of your research and ultimately the information resorces that you will utlize during the search process.


2.5: The Marketing Mix and the 4Ps of Marketing
By the end of this section, you will be able to
- Define and describe the marketing mix.
- List and explain the 4Ps of marketing.
Marketing Mix Defined
Having a great product or service is just the first step in establishing a successful business or building a successful brand. The best product or service in the world won’t translate to profits unless people know about it. How do you reach customers and help them connect with your product? That’s the role of the marketing mix.
The marketing mix is commonly referred to as the tactics a company can use to promote its products or services in the market to influence consumers to buy. The marketing mix is also known as the 4Ps: product, price, place, and promotion (see \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Let’s take a closer look.
- The product is the good or service that the company provides.
- The price is what the consumer pays in exchange for the product.
- The place is where the product is purchased.
- Promotion consists of advertising, sales, and other communication efforts the company utilizes to attract customers.
The 4Ps of Marketing
Up to this point, we have been talking about marketing in a somewhat abstract manner. Instead of continuing with a theoretical discussion of the marketing mix and the 4Ps of marketing, we will approach these topics using an example of a product you probably already own—a backpack. Let’s get started.
Product
Remember, product refers to a good or service that a company offers to its customers. Let’s consider a product that many of you likely own as college students: a backpack (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
In terms of the first of the 4Ps, marketing analyzes the needs of consumers who buy backpacks and decides if they want more and/or different bags. For example, marketing will analyze what features consumers want in the bag. Do they want a water bottle pocket, padded shoulder straps, reflective tape, a padded laptop sleeve, or organizer pockets? Think about your own bag for a moment: why did you buy this particular product? What features did it have that made it appealing to you?
Armed with market research knowledge, marketing then attempts to predict what types of backpacks different consumers will want and which of these consumers they will try to satisfy. For example, are you selling bags to adults for their children’s use? Are you selling them to young adults who might want more (or different) graphics on the bag? Are you selling to adults who will use these bags for work or school?
Marketing will then estimate how many consumers will purchase backpacks over the next several years and how many bags they’ll likely purchase. Marketing will also estimate how many competitors will produce backpacks, how many they’ll produce, and what types.
Price
Price is the amount consumers pay for a product or service. There’s a delicate balance here. On one hand, marketers must link the price to the product’s real or perceived benefits while at the same time taking into consideration factors like production costs, seasonal and distributor discounts, and pricing product lines and different models within the line.
Marketers attempt to estimate how much consumers are willing to pay for the backpack and—perhaps more importantly—if the company can make a profit selling at that price. Pricing products or services can be both an art and a science. In the case of our backpack example, the company wants to determine two things:
- What’s the minimum price the company can charge for the backpack and still make a profit?
- What’s the maximum price the company can charge for the backpack without losing customers?
The “correct” answer usually lies somewhere in between those points on the price continuum.
Promotion
Promotion includes advertising, public relations, and many other promotional strategies, including television and print advertisements, internet and social media advertising, and trade shows. A company’s promotional efforts must increase awareness of the product and articulate the reasons why customers should purchase their product. Remember: the goal of any promotional activity is to reach the “right” consumers at the right time and the right place.
In terms of our backpack example, marketing now needs to decide which kinds of promotional strategies should be used to tell potential customers about the company’s backpacks. For instance, should you use TV advertisements to make customers aware of the backpack? If so, you’ll want to run your commercials during programs your target audience watches. For example, if you’re selling backpacks to children (or trying to entice them to badger their parents to purchase them), children’s cartoons may be the most cost-effective avenue to reach your target market. If your backpacks are designed for work or school, you’ll likely decide to advertise on television programs that target younger adults.
A real-world promotional example is the recent brand partnership between Netflix and JanSport , the backpack company. These two companies collaborated on a Stranger Things- branded backpack with the launch of the fourth season of Stranger Things in 2022. This collaboration created five Hawkins-inspired backpacks centered on various Stranger Things themes. Read more about this promotion and see the backpacks here .
Perhaps you’ll decide to run magazine print ads. If so, you’ll need to decide which magazines you’ll place the ads in. Most magazines have a very specific readership demographic consisting of factors such as age, gender, and interests. If you plan to advertise those backpacks with print ads, you’ll want to leverage readership demographics to ensure that your message is being seen by the right consumers—those who are most likely to buy your backpacks ( Gaebler Ventures, 2022).
What about internet advertising? Internet advertising (sometimes known as online advertising or digital advertising) is a promotional strategy in which the company utilizes the internet as a medium to deliver its marketing messages. If you plan to go the digital route, what types of internet advertising will you use? Search engine marketing? Email marketing? Social media ads? TikTok videos?
Place
Place considerations focus on how and where to deliver the product to the consumer most likely to buy it. Where did you buy your backpack? Did you buy it in a big box store, online, in an office products store, or perhaps even in the school bookstore? Once again, through market research, marketers determine where potential customers will be and how to get the company’s backpacks to them.
One important factor to note about the importance of place in the marketing mix is that it doesn’t refer to the location of the company itself but rather to the location of the customers or potential customers. Place deals with strategies the marketer can employ to get those backpacks from their present location—a warehouse, for example—to the customers' location.


7.1.14: Suggested Resources
7.1.2 Business Structures: Overview of Legal and Tax Considerations
The Small Business Administration (SBA) has a great “tool box” for entrepreneurs. Tools include information on how to create a business plan and how to qualify for government contracts. It also has free online training classes and a list of networking events.  SBA: https://www.sba.gov/tools
7.1.3 Corporations
A cost-effective solution for obtaining business counsel is the Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE), which provides free advice for small businesses and entrepreneurs. The SCORE organization is the nation’s largest nonprofit network of volunteer, expert business mentors, with more than 10,000 volunteers in 300 chapters. You can find them at: https://www.score.org/
7.1.4 Partnerships and Joint Ventures
The IRS website has a clear explanation of partnerships with regard to taxation, regarding both income tax and employment/payroll taxes. You might find enough information here to help reduce the time you spend with a CPA, saving your company a lot of money: https://www.irs.gov/businesses/small...d/partnerships
7.1.5 Limited Liability Companies
The SBA has an excellent website for LLC owners. It has information about multiple topics including comparisons with other structures, and links to other websites that offer good advice: https://www.sba.gov/business-guide/l...ness-structure
7.1.8 Mitigating and Managing Risks
North Carolina State University, Poole College of Management, has an excellent enterprise risk management initiative. It has a wealth of helpful information for entrepreneurs on this topic: https://erm.ncsu.edu/library/article...-erm-framework


2.14: Pricing Strategies for New Products
By the end of this section, you will be able to
- List the pricing strategies for new products.
- Explain each pricing strategy for new products.
Price Skimming
When introducing a new product to the market, marketers often use one of three pricing strategies. Remember that when a company introduces a new product to the market, a lot of financial resources have already been used even before the first unit is sold. Therefore, marketers should choose an appropriate price that both appeals to buyers and helps to recuperate the costs of research and development so that the company can begin to maximize profits more quickly.
Price skimming is a new-product strategy in which marketers choose to initially set a high price for a product or service and lower it over time. The goal of price skimming is to attract the segment of the market that is willing to pay the highest possible price for the product. Once achieved, the price is lowered to attract another segment of the market and so on. The term skimming comes from the skimming of cream, layer by layer, from raw milk—or in this case, each segment of customers.
Innovative technology often uses price skimming. For example, when Sony launched the PlayStation 3, it was set at a fairly high price of $599. With little competition and a well-established brand, it was successful. Each year thereafter, it lowered the price—and gained new customers—until it eventually reached a price of $299 (Sivakumar, 2021).
Market Penetration Pricing
The opposite of price skimming is penetration pricing . The penetration pricing strategy is one in which the new product or service is set at the lowest price possible. This strategy’s objective is to penetrate the market, or gain as many customers in all segments as possible from the beginning of the product life cycle.
In the late 1990s, Netflix introduced its movie rental service. For a monthly subscription fee, users could rent four movies at a time with no return date. The low initial price targeted the most segments of the market and allowed customers to try the new service with little effort or financial impact.
Break-Even Pricing
Break-even pricing is a pricing strategy in which marketers choose a price that will cover all of the costs of manufacturing. The break-even point is when the number of units produced equals the revenue for the product. The break-even point will produce zero profit but will cover all associated costs.
The break-even formula is calculated by dividing the total fixed costs by the production unit price minus variable unit costs. The break-even point in units will tell a marketer exactly how many units must be sold in order to start making a profit.
Let’s look at an example. Assume you are opening a new gourmet cookie shop and you have estimated your projected costs. You’d like to know how many units you must sell in order to break even and then start making a profit. Let’s assume your fixed costs are $20,000. This includes rent, deliveries, ingredients, and new signage. You have estimated your variable costs to be $1.50 per unit, or cookie. You plan to charge $2.00 per cookie. How many units must you sell to break even? Using the formula above, you find that you must sell 40,000 cookies in order to break even.