18: Appendix - Understanding the Legal and Tax Environment
After reading this appendix, you should be able to answer these questions:
- How does the legal system govern business transactions and settle disputes?
- What are the required elements of a valid contract, and what are the key types of business law?
- What are the most common taxes paid by businesses?
Understanding the Legal Environment
- How does the legal system govern business transactions and settle disputes?
Our legal system affects everyone who lives and does business in the United States. The smooth functioning of society depends on the law, which protects the rights of people and businesses. The purpose of law is to keep the system stable while allowing orderly change. The law defines which actions are allowed or banned and regulates some practices. It also helps settle disputes. The legal system both shapes and is shaped by political, economic, and social systems. As Judge Learned Hand wrote in The Spirit of Liberty, “Without [the law] we cannot live; only with it can we insure the future which by right is ours.”
In any society, laws are the rules of conduct created and enforced by a controlling authority, usually the government. They develop over time in response to the changing needs of people, property, and business. The legal system of the United States is thus the result of a long and continuing process. In each generation, new social problems occur, and new laws are created to solve them. For instance, in the late 1800s corporations in certain industries, such as steel and oil, merged and became dominant. The Sherman Antitrust Act was passed in 1890 to control these powerful firms. Eighty years later, in 1970, Congress passed the National Environmental Policy Act. This law dealt with pollution problems, which no one had thought about in 1890. Today new areas of law are developing to deal with the internet and the recent financial scandals.
The Main Sources of Law
Common law is the body of unwritten law that has evolved out of judicial (court) decisions rather than being enacted by legislatures. It is also called case law. It developed in England and came to America with the colonists. All states except Louisiana, which follows the Napoleonic Code inherited from French settlers, follow the English system. Common law is based on community customs that were recognized and enforced by the courts.
Statutory law is written law enacted by legislatures at all levels, from city and state governments to the federal government. Examples of statutory law are the federal and state constitutions, bills passed by Congress, and ordinances, which are laws enacted by local governments. Statutory law is the chief source of new laws in the United States. Among the business activities governed by statutory law are securities regulation, incorporation, sales, bankruptcy, and antitrust.
Related to statutory law is administrative law , or the rules, regulations, and orders passed by boards, commissions, and agencies of federal, state, and local governments. The scope and influence of administrative law have expanded as the number of these government bodies has grown. Federal agencies issue more rulings and settle more disputes than all the courts and legislatures combined. Some federal agencies that issue rules are the Civil Aeronautics Board, the Internal Revenue Service, the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Federal Trade Commission, and the National Labor Relations Board.
Business law is the body of law that governs commercial dealings. These laws provide a protective environment within which businesses can operate. They serve as guidelines for business decisions. Every businessperson should be familiar with the laws governing his or her field. Some laws, such as the Internal Revenue Code, apply to all businesses. Other types of business laws may apply to a specific industry, such as Federal Communications Commission laws that regulate radio and TV stations.
In 1952 the United States grouped many business laws into a model that could be used by all the states. The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) sets forth the rules that apply to commercial transactions between businesses and between individuals and businesses. It has been adopted by 49 states; Louisiana uses only part of it. By standardizing laws, the UCC simplifies the process of doing business across state lines. It covers the sale of goods, bank deposits and collections, letters of credit, documents of title, and investment securities.
The Court System
The United States has a highly developed court system. This branch of government, the judiciary , is responsible for settling disputes by applying and interpreting points of law. Although court decisions are the basis for common law, the courts also answer questions left unanswered by statutes and administrative rulings. They have the power to assure that these laws do not violate the federal or state constitutions.
Trial Courts
Most court cases start in the trial courts , also called courts of general jurisdiction. The main federal trial courts are the U.S. district courts. There is at least one federal district court in each state. These courts hear cases involving serious federal crimes, immigration, postal regulations, disputes between citizens of different states, patents, copyrights, and bankruptcy. Specialized federal courts handle tax matters, international trade, and claims against the United States.
Appellate Courts
The losing party in a civil (noncriminal) case and a losing defendant in a criminal case may appeal the trial court’s decision to the next level in the judicial system, the appellate courts (courts of appeals) . There are 12 U.S. circuit courts of appeals. Cases that begin in a federal district court are appealed to the court of appeals for that district. These courts may also review orders from administrative agencies. Likewise, the states have appellate courts and supreme courts for cases tried in state district or superior courts.
No cases start in appellate courts. Their purpose is to review decisions of the lower courts and affirm, reverse, or modify the rulings.
The Supreme Court
The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the nation. It is the only court specifically established by the U.S. Constitution. Any cases involving a state or in which an ambassador, public minister, or consul is a party are heard directly by the Supreme Court. Its main function is to review decisions by the U.S. circuit courts of appeals. Parties not satisfied with a decision of a state supreme court can appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. But the Supreme Court accepts only those cases that it believes will have the greatest effect on the country, only about 200 of the thousands of appeals it gets each year.
Administrative Agencies
Administrative agencies have limited judicial powers to regulate their special areas. These agencies exist at the federal, state, and local levels. For example, in 2017, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) ordered satellite TV provider Dish Network to pay a fine of $280 million for violating the Do Not Call Registry, a clearinghouse for consumers who do not want to be contacted by telemarketers. A federal judge ruled that Dish Network was liable for more than 66 million calls that violated the FTC’s Telemarketing Sales Rule. 24
24 Lesley Fair, “Court Orders $280 Million from Dish Network, Largest Ever Do Not Call Penalty,” https://www.ftc.gov, accessed June 23, 2017.A list of selected federal agencies is shown in Table A1 .
| Agency | Function |
|---|---|
| Federal Trade Commission (FTC) | Enforces laws and guidelines regarding unfair business practices and acts to stop false and deceptive advertising and labeling. |
| Food and Drug Administration (FDA) | Enforces laws and regulations to prevent distribution of adulterated or misbranded foods, drugs, medical devices, cosmetics, veterinary products, and hazardous consumer products. |
| Consumer Products Safety Commission | Ensures compliance with the Consumer Product Safety Act and seeks to protect the public from unreasonable risk of injury from any consumer product not covered by other regulatory agencies. |
| Federal Communications Commission (FCC) | Regulates wire, radio, and TV communication in interstate and foreign commerce. |
| Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) | Develops and enforces environmental protection standards and researches the effects of pollution. |
| Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) | Regulates rates and sales of natural gas products, thereby affecting the supply and price of gas available to consumers; also regulates wholesale rates for electricity and gas, pipeline construction, and U.S. imports and exports of natural gas and electricity. |
| Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) | Oversees the policies and regulations of the airline industry. |
| Federal Highway Administration (FHA) | Regulates vehicle safety requirements. |
Nonjudicial Methods of Settling Disputes
Settling disputes by going to court is both expensive and time-consuming. Even if the case is settled prior to the actual trial, sizable legal expenses can be incurred in preparing for trial. Therefore, many companies now use private arbitration and mediation firms as alternatives to litigation. Private firms offer these services, which are a high growth area within the legal profession.
With arbitration , the parties agree to present their case to an impartial third party and are required to accept the arbitrator’s decision. Mediation is similar, but the parties are not bound by the mediator’s decision. The mediator suggests alternative solutions and helps the parties negotiate a settlement. Mediation is more flexible than arbitration and allows for compromise. If the parties cannot reach a settlement, they can then go to court, an option not available in most arbitration cases.
In addition to saving time and money, corporations like the confidentiality of testimony and settlement terms in these proceedings. Arbitration and mediation also allow businesses and medical professionals to avoid jury trials, which can result in large settlements in certain types of lawsuits, such as personal injury, discrimination, medical malpractice, and product liability.
Contract Law
- What are the required elements of a valid contract, and what are the key types of business law?
Linda Price, a 22-year-old college student, is looking at a car with a sticker price of $18,000. After some negotiating, she and the salesperson agree on a price of $17,000, and the salesperson writes up a contract, which they both sign. Has Linda legally bought the car for $17,000? The answer is yes, because the transaction meets all the requirements for a valid contract.
A contract is an agreement that sets forth the relationship between parties regarding the performance of a specified action. The contract creates a legal obligation and is enforceable in a court of law. Contracts are an important part of business law. Contract law is also incorporated into other fields of business law, such as property and agency law. Some of the business transactions that involve contracts are buying materials and property, selling goods, leasing equipment, and hiring consultants.
A contract can be an express contract, which specifies the terms of the agreement in either written or spoken words, or an implied contract , which depends on the acts and conduct of the parties to show agreement. An example of an express contract is the written sales contract for Linda Price’s new car. An implied contract exists when you order and receive a sandwich at Jason’s Grill. You and the restaurant have an implied contract that you will pay the price shown on the restaurant’s menu in exchange for an edible sandwich.
Contract Requirements
Businesses deal with contracts all the time, so it’s important to know the requirements of a valid contract. For a contract to be legally enforceable, all of the following elements must be present:
- Mutual assent. Voluntary agreement by both parties to the terms of the contract. Each party to the contract must have entered into it freely, without duress. Using physical or economic harm to force the signing of the contract—threatening injury or refusing to place another large order, for instance—invalidates a contract. Likewise, fraud—misrepresenting the facts of a transaction—makes a contract unenforceable. Telling a prospective used-car buyer that the brakes are new when in fact they have not been replaced makes the contract of sale invalid.
- Capacity. Legal ability of a party to enter into contracts. Under the law, minors (those under 18), mental incompetents, drug and alcohol addicts, and convicts cannot enter into contracts.
- Consideration. Exchange of some legal value or benefit between the parties. Consideration can be in the form of money, goods, or a legal right given up. Suppose that an electronics manufacturer agrees to rent an industrial building for a year at a monthly rent of $1,500. Its consideration is the rent payment of $1,500, and the building owner’s consideration is permission to occupy the space. But if you offer to type a term paper for a friend for free and your offer is accepted, there is no contract. Your friend has not given up anything, so you are not legally bound to honor the deal.
- Legal purpose. Absence of illegality. The purpose of the contract must be legal for it to be valid. A contract cannot require performance of an illegal act. A contract to smuggle drugs into a state for a specified amount of money would not be legally enforceable.
- Legal form. Oral or written form, as required. Many contracts can be oral. For instance, an oral contract exists when Bridge Corp. orders office supplies by phone from Ace Stationery Store and Ace delivers the requested goods. Written contracts include leases, sales contracts, and property deeds. Some types of contracts must be in writing to be legally binding. In most states, written contracts are required for the sale of goods costing more than $500, for the sale of land, for contract performance that cannot be carried out within a year, and for guarantees to pay the debts of someone else.
As you can see, Linda Price’s car purchase meets all the requirements for a valid contract. Both parties have freely agreed to the terms of the contract. Linda is not a minor and presumably does not fit any of the other categories of incapacity. Both parties are giving consideration, Linda by paying the money and the salesperson by turning over the car to her. The purchase of the car is a legal activity. And the written contract is the correct form because the cost of the car is over $500.
Breach of Contract
A breach of contract occurs when one party to a contract fails (without legal excuse) to fulfill the terms of the agreement. The other party then has the right to seek a remedy in the courts. There are three legal remedies for breach of contract:
- Payment of damages. Money awarded to the party who was harmed by the breach of contract, to cover losses incurred because the contract wasn’t fulfilled. Suppose that Ajax Roofing contracts with Fred Wellman to fix the large hole in the roof of his factory within three days. But the roofing crew doesn’t show up as promised. When a thunderstorm four days later causes $45,000 in damage to Wellman’s machinery, Wellman can sue for damages to cover the costs of the water damage because Ajax breached the contract.
- Specific performance of the contract. A court order requiring the breaching party to perform the duties under the terms of the contract. Specific performance is the most common method of settling a breach of contract. Wellman might ask the court to direct Ajax to fix the roof at the price and conditions in the contract.
- Restitution. Canceling the contract and returning to the situation that existed before the contract. If one party fails to perform under the contract, neither party has any further obligation to the other. Because Ajax failed to fix Wellman’s roof under the terms of the contract, Wellman does not owe Ajax any money. Ajax must return the 50 percent deposit it received when Wellman signed the contract.
Warranties
Express warranties are specific statements of fact or promises about a product by the seller. This form of warranty is considered part of the sales transaction that influences the buyer. Express warranties appear in the form of statements that can be interpreted as fact. The statement “This machine will process 1,000 gallons of paint per hour” is an express warranty, as is the printed warranty that comes with a computer or a telephone answering machine.
Implied warranties are neither written nor oral. These guarantees are imposed on sales transactions by statute or court decision. They promise that the product will perform up to expected standards. For instance, a man bought a used car from a dealer, and the next day the transmission fell out as he was driving on the highway. The dealer fixed the car, but a week later the brakes failed. The man sued the car dealer. The court ruled in favor of the car owner because any car without a working transmission or brakes is not fit for the ordinary purpose of driving. Similarly, if a customer asks to buy a copier to handle 5,000 copies per month, she relies on the salesperson to sell her a copier that meets those needs. The salesperson implicitly warrants that the copier purchased is appropriate for that volume.
Patents, Copyrights, and Trademarks
The U.S. Constitution protects authors, inventors, and creators of other intellectual property by giving them the rights to their creative works. Patents, copyrights, and registration of trademarks and servicemarks are legal protection for key business assets.
A patent gives an inventor the exclusive right to manufacture, use, and sell an invention for 20 years. The U.S. Patent Office, a government agency, grants patents for ideas that meet its requirements of being new, unique, and useful. The physical process, machine, or formula is what is patented. Patent rights—pharmaceutical companies’ rights to produce drugs they discover, for example—are considered intangible personal property.
The government also grants copyrights. A copyright is an exclusive right, shown by the symbol ©, given to a writer, artist, composer, or playwright to use, produce, and sell her or his creation. Works protected by copyright include printed materials (books, magazine articles, lectures), works of art, photographs, and movies. Under current copyright law, the copyright is issued for the life of the creator plus 70 years after the creator’s death. Patents and copyrights, which are considered intellectual property, are the subject of many lawsuits today.
A trademark is a design, name, or other distinctive mark that a manufacturer uses to identify its goods in the marketplace. Apple’s “bitten apple” logo (symbol) is an example of a trademark. A servicemark is a symbol, name, or design that identifies a service rather than a tangible object. The Travelers Insurance umbrella logo is an example of a servicemark.
Most companies identify their trademark with the ® symbol in company ads. This symbol shows that the trademark is registered with the Register of Copyrights, Copyright Office, Library of Congress. The trademark is followed by a generic description: Fritos corn chips, Xerox copiers, Scotch brand tape, Kleenex tissues.
Trademarks are valuable because they create uniqueness in the minds of customers. At the same time, companies don’t want a trademark to become so well known that it is used to describe all similar types of products. For instance, Coke is often used to refer to any cola soft drink, not just those produced by The Coca-Cola Company. Companies spend millions of dollars each year to keep their trademarks from becoming generic words, terms used to identify a product class rather than the specific product. The Coca-Cola Company employs many investigators and files many lawsuits each year to prevent its trademarks from becoming generic words.
Once a trademark becomes generic (which a court decides), it is public property and can be used by any person or company. Names that were once trademarked but are now generic include aspirin, thermos, linoleum, and toll house cookies.
Tort Law
A tort is a civil, or private, act that harms other people or their property. The harm may involve physical injury, emotional distress, invasion of privacy, or defamation (injuring a person’s character by publication of false statements). The injured party may sue the wrongdoer to recover damages for the harm or loss. A tort is not the result of a breach of contract, which would be settled under contract law. Torts are part of common law. Examples of tort cases are medical malpractice, slander (an untrue oral statement that damages a person’s reputation), libel (an untrue written statement that damages a person’s reputation), product liability (discussed in the next section), and fraud.
A tort is generally not a crime, although some acts can be both torts and crimes. (Assault and battery, for instance, is a criminal act that would be prosecuted by the state and also a tort because of the injury to the person.) Torts are private wrongs and are settled in civil courts. Crimes are violations of public law punishable by the state or county in the criminal courts. The purpose of criminal law is to punish the person who committed the crime. The purpose of tort law is to provide remedies to the injured party.
For a tort to exist and damages to be recovered, the harm must be done through either negligence or deliberate intent. Negligence occurs when reasonable care is not taken for the safety of others. For instance, a woman attending a New York Mets baseball game was struck on the head by a foul ball that came through a hole in the screen behind home plate. The court ruled that a sports team charging admission has an obligation to provide structures free from defects and seating that protects spectators from danger. The Mets were found negligent. Negligence does not apply when an injury is caused by an unavoidable accident, an event that was not intended and could not have been prevented even if the person used reasonable care. This area of tort law is quite controversial, because the definition of negligence leaves much room for interpretation.
Product-Liability Law
Product liability refers to manufacturers’ and sellers’ responsibility for defects in the products they make and sell. It has become a specialized area of law combining aspects of contracts, warranties, torts, and statutory law (at both the state and federal levels). A product-liability suit may be based on negligence or strict liability (both of which are torts) or misrepresentation or breach of warranty (part of contract law).
An important concept in product-liability law is strict liability . A manufacturer or seller is liable for any personal injury or property damage caused by defective products or packaging—even if all possible care was used to prevent such defects. The definition of defective is quite broad. It includes manufacturing and design defects and inadequate instructions on product use or warnings of danger.
Product-liability suits are very costly. More than 100,000 product-liability suits were filed against hundreds of companies that made or used asbestos, a substance that causes lung disease and cancer but was once used widely in insulation, brake linings, textiles, and other products. Scores of companies were forced into bankruptcy as a result of asbestos-related lawsuits, and the total cost of asbestos cases to defendants and their insurers exceeds $70 billion (most of which was paid not to the victims but to lawyers and experts).
Bankruptcy Law
Congress has given financially distressed firms and individuals a way to make a fresh start. Bankruptcy is the legal procedure by which individuals or businesses that cannot meet their financial obligations are relieved of their debts. A bankruptcy court distributes any assets to the creditors.
Bankruptcy can be either voluntary or involuntary. In a voluntary bankruptcy, the debtor files a petition with the court, stating that debts exceed assets and asking the court to declare the debtor bankrupt. In an involuntary bankruptcy, the creditors file the bankruptcy petition.
The Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1978, amended in 1984 and 1986, provides for the resolution of bankruptcy cases. Under this act, two types of bankruptcy proceedings are available to businesses: Chapter 7 (liquidation) and Chapter 11 (reorganization). Most bankruptcies, an estimated 70 percent, use Chapter 7. After the sale of any assets, the cash proceeds are given first to secured creditors and then to unsecured creditors. A firm that opts to reorganize under Chapter 11 works with its creditors to develop a plan for paying part of its debts and writing off the rest.
The Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act went into effect October 17, 2005. Under this law, Americans with heavy debt will find it difficult to avoid meeting their financial obligations. Many debtors will have to work out repayment plans instead of having their obligations erased in bankruptcy court. 1
The law requires people with incomes above a certain level to pay some or all of their credit-card charges, medical bills, and other obligations under a court-ordered bankruptcy plan. Supporters of the 2005 law argue that bankruptcy frequently is the last refuge of gamblers, impulsive shoppers, the divorced or separated, and fathers avoiding child support. Now there is an objective, needs-based bankruptcy test to determine whether filers should be allowed to cancel their debts or be required to enter a repayment plan. Generally, people with incomes above the state median income would be required to use a plan to repay their debts. People with special circumstances, such as serious medical conditions, would be allowed to cancel debts despite this income level.
Also, companies will need a lot more cash to enter into a bankruptcy than in the past. Before the 2005 law, utilities could not discontinue service as a result of a bankruptcy filing. But under the new act, the filing company must post a cash deposit or equivalent in order to continue their service. Sellers also have priority over other claims with regard to merchandise distributed to the debtor within 20 days prior to the bankruptcy filing.
The act limits the debtor’s exclusivity period, which was a real boon of filing for bankruptcy. Past law allowed for indefinite extensions, which served to drag out the time before bondholders and other creditors get any money. But now that period is capped at 18 months, with no room for extension. For large corporations with complicated bankruptcies, such a quick turnaround may not be possible, and if a plan is not filed at the end of 18 months, the company must put itself at the mercy of creditors.
Laws to Promote Fair Competition
Many measures have been taken to try to keep the marketplace free from influences that would restrict competition. These efforts include antitrust regulation , laws that prevent companies from entering into agreements to control trade through a monopoly. The first act regulating competition was the Sherman Antitrust Act , passed in 1890 to prevent large companies from dominating an industry and making it hard for smaller firms to compete. This broad act banned monopolies and contracts, mergers, or conspiracies in restraint of trade. In 1914 the Clayton Act added to the more general provisions of the Sherman Antitrust Act. It outlawed the following:
- Price discrimination. Offering a customer discounts that are not offered to all other purchasers buying on similar terms
- Exclusive dealing. Refusing to let the buyer purchase a competitor’s products for resale
- Tying contracts. Requiring buyers to purchase merchandise they may not want in order to get the products they do want
- Purchase of stock in competing corporations so as to lessen competition. Buying competitors’ stock in such quantity that competition is reduced
The 1950 Celler-Kefauver Act amended the Clayton Act. It bans the purchase of one firm by another if the resulting merger decreases competition within the industry. As a result, all corporate acquisitions are subject to regulatory approval before they can be finalized. Most antitrust actions are taken by the U.S. Department of Justice, based on federal law. Violations of the antitrust acts are punishable by fines, imprisonment, or civil damage payments that can be as high as three times the actual damage amount. These outcomes give defendants an incentive to resolve cases.
The Federal Trade Commission Act, also passed in 1914, bans unfair trade practices. This act created the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), an independent five-member board with the power to define and monitor unfair trade practices, such as those prohibited by the Sherman and Clayton Acts. The FTC investigates complaints and can issue rulings called cease-and-desist orders to force companies to stop unfair business practices. Its powers have grown over the years. Today the FTC is one of the most important agencies regulating the competitive practices of business.
Regulation of Advertising and Pricing
A number of federal laws directly affect the promotion and pricing of products. The Wheeler-Lea Act of 1938 amended the Federal Trade Commission Act and gave the FTC authority to regulate advertising. The FTC monitors companies’ advertisements for false or misleading claims.
The most important law in the area of pricing is the Robinson-Patman Act, a federal law passed in 1936 that tightened the Clayton Act’s prohibitions against price discrimination. An exception is made for circumstances like discounts for quantity purchases, as long as the discounts do not lessen competition. But a manufacturer cannot sell at a lower price to one company just because that company buys all its merchandise from the manufacturer. Also, if one firm is offered quantity discounts, all firms buying that quantity of goods must get the discounts. The FTC and the antitrust division of the Justice Department monitor pricing.
Consumer Protection Laws
Consumerism reflects the struggle for power between buyers and sellers. Specifically, it is a social movement seeking to increase the rights and powers of buyers vis-à-vis sellers. Sellers’ rights and powers include the following:
- To introduce into the marketplace any product, in any size and style, that is not hazardous to personal health or safety, or if it is hazardous, to introduce it with the proper warnings and controls
- To price the product at any level they wish, provided they do not discriminate among similar classes of buyers
- To spend any amount of money they wish to promote the product, so long as the promotion does not constitute unfair competition
- To formulate any message they wish about the product, provided that it is not misleading or dishonest in content or execution
- To introduce any buying incentives they wish
Meanwhile, buyers have the following rights and powers:
- To refuse to buy any product that is offered to them
- To expect products to be safe
- To expect a product to be essentially as the seller represents it
- To receive adequate information about the product
Many laws have been passed to protect consumer rights. Table A2 lists the major consumer protection laws.
| Key Consumer Protection Laws | |
|---|---|
| Mail Fraud Act (1872) | Makes it a federal crime to defraud consumers through use of the mail. |
| Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) | Created the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); protects consumers against the interstate sale of unsafe and adulterated foods and drugs. |
| Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938) | Expanded the power of the FDA to cover cosmetics and therapeutic devices and to establish standards for food products. |
| Flammable Fabrics Act (1953) | Prohibits sale or manufacture of clothing made of dangerously flammable fabric. |
| Child Protection Act (1966) | Prohibits sale of harmful toys and gives the FDA the right to remove dangerous products from the marketplace. |
| Cigarette Labeling Act (1965) | Requires cigarette manufacturers to put labels warning consumers about health hazards on cigarette packages. |
| Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (1966) | Regulates labeling and packaging of consumer products. |
| Consumer Credit Protection Act (Truth-in-Lending Act) (1968) | Requires lenders to fully disclose to borrowers the loan terms and the costs of borrowing (interest rate, application fees, etc.). |
| Fair Credit Reporting Act (1971) | Requires consumers denied credit on the basis of reports from credit agencies to be given access to their reports and to be allowed to correct inaccurate information. |
| Consumer Product Safety Act (1972) | Created the Consumer Product Safety Commission, an independent federal agency, to establish and enforce consumer product safety standards. |
| Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1975) | Prohibits denial of credit on the basis of gender, marital status, race, religion, age, or national origin. |
| Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act (1975) | Requires that warranties be written in clear language and that terms be fully disclosed. |
| Fair Debt Collection Practice Act (1978) | Makes it illegal to harass or abuse any person, to make false statements, or to use unfair methods when collecting a debt. |
| Alcohol Labeling Legislation (1988) | Provides for warning labels on liquor saying that women shouldn’t drink when pregnant and that alcohol impairs our abilities. |
| Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (1990) | Requires truthful and uniform nutritional labeling on every food the FDA regulates. |
| Children’s Television Act (1990) | Limits the amount of advertising to be shown during children’s television programs to not more than 10.5 minutes per hour on weekends and not more than 12.0 minutes per hour on weekdays. |
| Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990) | Protects the rights of people with disabilities; makes discrimination against the disabled illegal in public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications. |
| Brady Law (1998) | Imposes a 5-day waiting period and a background check before a gun purchaser can take possession of the gun. |
| Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (2002) | Regulates the collection of personally identifiable information (name, address, e-mail address, phone number, hobbies, interests, or other information collected through cookies) online from children under age 13. |
| Can-Spam Anti-Spam Law (2004) | Requires marketers to remove customers from their lists when requested, and provide automated opt-out methods as well as complete contact information (address and phone) with alternate means of removal. It also bans common practices such as false headers and e-mail harvesting (the use of software that spies on Web sites to collect e-mail addresses). Subject lines must be truthful and contain a notice that the message is an ad. |
| Credit Card Accountability and Disclosure Act (2009) | Amends the Truth in Lending Act to prescribe open-end credit lending procedures and enhanced disclosures to consumers, limit related fees and charges to consumers, increase related penalties, and establish constraints and protections for issuance of credit cards to minors and students. |
| Dodd Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (2010) | The act established after the financial crisis of 2008 created a number of new government agencies tasked with overseeing various components of the act and by extension various aspects of the banking system. President Donald Trump has pledged to repeal Dodd-Frank, and on May 22, 2018, the House of Representatives voted to roll back significant pieces of Dodd-Frank. |
Table A2
Deregulation of Industries
During the 1980s and 1990s, the U.S. government actively promoted deregulation , the removal of rules and regulations governing business competition. Deregulation drastically changed some once-regulated industries (especially the transportation, telecommunications, and financial services industries) and created many new competitors. The result has been entries into and exits from some industries. One of the latest industries to deregulate is the electric power industry. With almost 200 investor-owned electric utilities, it is the largest industry to be deregulated so far.
Consumers typically benefit from deregulation. Increased competition often means lower prices. Businesses also benefit because they have more freedom to operate and can avoid the costs associated with government regulations. But more competition can also make it hard for small or weak firms to survive.
Regulation of the Internet
Use of the internet has exploded over the past decade. Recent estimates suggest that more than half of the world’s population use the web to purchase goods and services, book travel plans, conduct banking and pay bills, stream original content, read the latest news and sports information, look up facts and figures, and keep up with friends, family, and business associates via Skype, FaceTime, Twitter, Facebook, and other platforms. 2
Internet access and regulation continue to be a concern for many interest groups, including privacy advocates, internet providers, private citizens, technology companies, and the government, to name a few. In 2017, President Trump signed legislation overturning the internet privacy protections originally put in place by the Obama administration. Under the new legislation, internet providers will now be able to collect, store, share, and sell certain types of customer information without their consent. Under previous legislation, sharing this type of data would have required consumers’ permission. With this new law, companies such as Verizon and Comcast will be able to mine user data and use that information to compete in the $83 billion digital advertising market with companies such as Google and Facebook. 3 The internet environment is extremely dynamic, so consumers and other interest groups should monitor how regulations and other policies will continue to change the ground rules for internet use.
Understanding the Tax Environment of Business
- What are the most common taxes paid by businesses?
Taxes are sometimes seen as the price we pay to live in this country. Taxes are assessed by all levels of government on both business and individuals, and they are used to pay for the services provided by government. The federal government is the largest collector of taxes, accounting for 52 percent of all tax dollars. States are next, followed closely by local government taxes. The average American family pays about 37 percent of its income for taxes, 28 percent to the federal government and 9 percent to state and local governments.
Income Taxes
Income taxes are based on the income received by businesses and individuals. The income taxes paid to the federal government are set by Congress, regulated by the Internal Revenue Code, and collected by the Internal Revenue Service. These taxes are progressive , meaning that rates increase as income increases. Most of the states and some large cities also collect income taxes from individuals and businesses. The state and local governments establish their own rules and tax rates.
Other Types of Taxes
Besides income taxes, individuals and businesses pay a number of other taxes. The four main types are property taxes, payroll taxes, sales taxes, and excise taxes.
Property taxes are assessed on real and personal property, based on the assessed value of the property. They raise quite a bit of revenue for state and local governments. Most states tax land and buildings. Property taxes may be based on fair market value (what a buyer would pay), a percentage of fair market value, or replacement value (what it would cost today to rebuild or buy something like the original). The value on which the taxes are based is the assessed value.
Any business that has employees and meets a payroll must pay payroll taxes , the employer’s share of Social Security taxes and federal and state unemployment taxes. These taxes must be paid on wages, salaries, and commissions. State unemployment taxes are based on the number of employees in a firm who have become eligible for unemployment benefits. A firm that has never had an employee become eligible for unemployment will pay a low rate of state unemployment taxes. The firm’s experience with employment benefits does not affect federal unemployment tax rates.
Sales taxes are levied on goods when they are sold and are a percentage of the sales price. These taxes are imposed by states, counties, and cities. They vary in amount and in what is considered taxable. Some states have no sales tax. Others tax some categories (such as appliances) but not others (such as clothes). Still others tax all retail products except food, magazines, and prescription drugs. Sales taxes increase the cost of goods to the consumer. Businesses bear the burden of collecting sales taxes and sending them to the government.
Excise taxes are placed on specific items, such as gasoline, alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, airline tickets, cars, and guns. They can be assessed by federal, state, and local governments. In many cases, these taxes help pay for services related to the item taxed. For instance, gasoline excise taxes are often used to build and repair highways. Other excise taxes—such as those on alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, and guns—are used to control practices that may cause harm.
Footnotes
- 1 “Changes in Bankruptcy Laws—Credit Counseling, Means Test,” http://www.creditinfocenter.com , May 10, 2016.
- 2 “Digital in 2017: Global Overview,” The Next Web, https://thenextweb.com , accessed June 23, 2017.
- 3 Brian Fung, “Trump Has Signed Repeal of FCC’s Internet Privacy Rule. Here’s What Happens Next,” Los Angeles Times, http://www.latimes.com , April 4, 2017.


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8: The Third Law, Absolute Entropy, and the Gibbs Free Energy of Formation
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8.1: Heat Capacity as a Function of Temperature
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The heat capacity of the solid substance decreases to zero as the absolute temperature decreases to zero; the curve meets the abscissa at the zero of temperature and does so asymptotically. That this is true for all substances seems like an odd sort of coincidence. Why should all solid substances exhibit essentially the same heat capacity (zero) at one temperature (absolute zero)?
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8.2: The Third Law
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The idea that the entropy change for a pure substance goes to zero as the temperature goes to zero finds expression as the third law of thermodynamics: If the entropy of each element in some crystalline state be taken as zero at the absolute zero of temperature, every substance has a positive finite entropy; but at the absolute zero of temperature the entropy may become zero, and does so become in the case of perfect crystalline substances.
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8.3: Absolute Entropy
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At any given temperature, the entropy value that is obtained in this way is called the substance’s absolute entropy or its third-law entropy. When the entropy value is calculated for one mole of the substance in its standard state, the resulting absolute entropy is called the standard entropy. The standard entropy is usually given the symbol So . It is usually included in compilations of thermodynamic data for chemical substances.
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8.4: Evaluating Entropy Changes Using Thermochemical Cycles
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As for the standard enthalpy of reaction, we can obtain the standard entropy of reaction at a new temperature by evaluating entropy changes around a suitable thermochemical cycle. To do so, we need the standard entropy change at one temperature. We also need heat capacity data for all of the reactants and products.


3.5: Identifying Neurons Within Nervous Tissue
Information
Nervous tissue is the last of the four major categories of animal tissue. Nervous tissue comprises neuron s, the cells specialized for the propagation of electrochemical signals, and neuroglia , the so-called “supporting cells” of nervous tissue. There are multiple types of neuroglia cells (sometimes called just glial cells), and most of them do assist neurons, but recent research has discovered that some of the neuroglia cells play an active role by themselves in the proper functioning of the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is turning out that neuroglia do more than just support neurons.
We will leave investigation of the neuroglia for later labs. In this lab, we will just focus on the structural features of neurons as they are visible under microscopic examination.
A neuron is typically represented as having the following features. A large cell body (sometimes known as the soma) in which the nucleus and other major organelles are found. Dendrites, which are usually represented as numerous small projections extending from the cell body. A single axon, which is usually represented as a large single projection extending from the cell body, much longer than any of the dendrites. Multiple axon terminals that branch off at the end of the axon. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows a typical drawn neuron showing all these features.
All of these features are important to the functioning of neurons. The cell body is where most of the cellular processes of the neuron take place: protein synthesis, metabolism, etc. The dendrites contact and pick up signals coming in from other cells (other neurons or sensory cells). The axon propagates the neuron’s electrical signal to its various targets. And the axon terminals actually contact (synapse with) those targets and send chemical signals to the targets to trigger changes in them. However, most neurons in the body do not look as clear-cut as the neuron in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Some neurons have short axons. Others have dendrites that are almost as large as the axon. Others have two axons connected to the same cell body. Many have dendrites and axon terminals that are too thin and small too see clearly. Cell bodies tend to come in all sorts of sizes and shapes, and are not always bulbous lumps readily distinguished from the rest of the cell.
What’s more, nervous tissue is delicate and fragile. In creating preparations for slides to viewed under a microscope, some of the cells are smushed together, damaged, truncated, or torn. Other times, the nervous tissue cells are simply too densely packed together to make out individual details. Much of what is visible is not useful to the student looking to find an intact and well-defined neuron. However, a bit of searching will often reveal some intact neurons.
Often these are found at the edges of the preparation where the material is least dense. Keep in mind, you will often see neurons shaped distinctly different from those shown in textbooks and if Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\).
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows two different locations in the same slide. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) A shows a mass of neurons (stained black) in which it is difficult to distinguish the shape of even one neuron clearly. Figure 3.8 B shows a different area from the same slide, where the neurons are not so crowded, and where one neuron in particular (outlined in red) shows many of the structures we are interested in. So, keep in mind, it is important to know what you want to find in a particular slide, and it is important to search around the slide to find the best example of what you are looking for.
- Obtain a slide of nervous tissue from the instructor. Use any nervous tissue except peripheral nerve, there are no nerve cell bodies in a peripheral nerve section.
- View the slide on the second-highest objective. Search carefully until you find a clear, representative neuron in your field of view.
- In the circle below, draw the neuron you found. Only draw the single neuron. Do not draw any of the other material. Draw your structures proportionately to their size in your microscope’s field of view.
- Label any neural parts you can clearly recognize.
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Total Magnification: _________________ Source of tissue: ____________________ Parts: __________________________ __________________________________ |
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
A&P Labs. Authored by : Ross Whitwam. Provided by : Mississippi University for Women. Located at : http://www.muw.edu . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). A typical diagrammatic representation of neuron.. Authored by : Jonathan Haas. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/inde...curid=18271454 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Authored by : Kent Christensen, Ph.D., J. Matthew Velkey, Ph.D., Lloyd M. Stoolman, M.D., Laura Hessler, and Diedra Mosley-Brower. Provided by : University of Michigan Histology and Virtual Microscopy Learning Resources. Located at: <IP_ADDRESS>/Histology/Central%20Nervous%20System/13270.svs/view.apml . License: CC BY-SA: Attribution- ShareAlike


1.9: Chapter 1 Activity
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When making important decisions, we’re often able to think of one or two obvious options, but we might stop there which means our decision-making may not be comprehensive. In the SMART decision-making model explained in this chapter, Step 2 is to brainstorm as many “measures” or options as possible. In Step 2, we are not judging our measures yet - we will do so in Step 3 when we “assess.” For example, in a life situation where a student needs to make more money, measures we might think of immediately include getting a second job or another higher-paying job. Other measures include accepting more student loans or starting a side hustle walking dogs. A measure that sounds silly but still is an option is to win the lottery. Remember, in Step 2, you’re brainstorming, not yet assessing.
Your turn to practice that brainstorming in Step 2. Think of an important decision you need to make in your life (or recently made).
What are the first two obvious measures that came to your mind?
What are two more positive measures that could be options?
What are two more measures that might seem silly or even negative that could be applied to your situation?


29.7D: Genus Homo
- Compare and contrast the evolution and characteristics associated with the various Homo species: Homo habilis, erectus, and sapiens
Early Hominins: Genus Homo
The human genus, Homo , first appeared around 2.3 million years ago. For many years, fossils of a species called Homo habilis were the oldest examples in the genus Homo , but in 2010, a new species called Homo gautengensis was proposed that may be older, although it is not well accepted. In comparison to Australopithecus africanus , H. habilis had a number of features more similar to modern humans. H. habilis had a jaw that was less prognathic (forward projection of the jaw) than the australopiths and a larger brain, at 600–750 cubic centimeters. However, H. habilis retained some features of older hominin species, such as long arms. The name H. habilis means “handy man,” which is a reference to the stone tools that have been found with its remains.
H. erectus appeared approximately 1.8 million years ago. It is believed to have originated in East Africa and was the first hominin species to migrate out of Africa. Fossils of H. erectus have been found in India, China, Java, and Europe, and were known in the past as “Java Man” or “Peking Man.” H. erectus had a number of features that were more similar to modern humans than those of H. habilis . H. erectus was larger in size than earlier hominins, reaching heights up to 1.85 meters and weighing up to 65 kilograms, sizes similar to those of modern humans. Its degree of sexual dimorphism was less than earlier species, with males being 20 to 30 percent larger than females, which is close to the size difference seen in our species. H. erectus had a larger brain than earlier species at 775–1,100 cubic centimeters, which compares to the 1,130–1,260 cubic centimeters seen in modern human brains. H. erectus also had a nose with downward-facing nostrils similar to modern humans, rather than the forward facing nostrils found in other primates. Longer, downward-facing nostrils allow for the warming of cold air before it enters the lungs and may have been an adaptation to colder climates. Artifacts found with fossils of H. erectus suggest that it was the first hominin to use fire, hunt, and have a home base. H. erectus is generally thought to have lived until about 50,000 years ago.
Homo erectus
Homo erectus had a prominent brow and a nose that pointed downward rather than forward.
Humans: Homo sapiens
A number of species, sometimes called archaic Homo sapiens , apparently evolved from H. erectus starting about 500,000 years ago. These archaic H. sapiens had a brain size similar to that of modern humans, averaging 1,200–1,400 cubic centimeters. They differed from modern humans by having a thick skull, a prominent brow ridge, and a receding chin. Some of these populations survived until 30,000–10,000 years ago, overlapping with anatomically-modern humans.
There is considerable debate about the origins of anatomically-modern humans or Homo sapiens sapiens . As discussed earlier, H. erectus migrated out of Africa and into Asia and Europe in the first major wave of migration about 1.5 million years ago. The multiregional hypothesis holds that humans first arose near the beginning of the Pleistocene two million years ago and subsequent human evolution has been within a single, continuous human species. This species encompasses archaic human forms such as Homo erectus and Neanderthals as well as modern forms, which evolved worldwide to the diverse populations of modern Homo sapiens sapiens . The hypothesis contends that humans evolve through a combination of adaptation within various regions of the world and gene flow between those regions. Proponents of multiregional origin point to fossil and genomic data and continuity of archaeological cultures as support for their hypothesis.
The primary alternative hypothesis is the recent African origin of modern humans, which holds that modern humans arose in Africa around 100,000–200,000 years ago, moving out of Africa around 50,000–60,000 years ago to replace archaic human forms with limited interbreeding: at least once with Neanderthals and once with Denisovans.
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- Ardipithecus. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardipithecus . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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Key Points
- Homo erectus , appearing 1.8 million years ago, was the first hominin species to migrate out of East Africa, use fire, and hunt.

- The multiregional hypothesis of modern human origins states that there is an unbroken line of evolution involving regional adaptations and gene flow from H. erectus to H. sapiens sapiens .
- The recent out of Africa hypothesis of modern human origins states that H. sapiens sapiens arose in Africa between 100,000 – 200,000 years, left Africa around 60,000 years ago, and replaced all archaic humans, with very little inter-breeding.
- All men today inherited a Y chromosome from a male that lived in Africa about 140,000 years ago.
Key Terms
- Homo habilis : (“handy man”) an extinct taxonomic species within the genus Homo that had long arms and may have used stone tools
- Homo erectus : (“upright man) extinct species of hominin that appeared 1.8 million years ago; the first hominin to use fire, hunt, and have a home base
- Homo sapiens : evolved from H. erectus starting about 500,000 years ago; humans


16.6B: Plasma and Blood Volume Expanders
A volume expander is a type of intravenous therapy that provides fluid replacement for the circulatory system.
- Evaluate the use of blood volume expanders
Key Points
- During blood loss, the amount of oxygen that can be delivered to the tissues is reduced due to lost red blood cells and decreased blood volume, which also causes a decrease in blood pressure.
- Although they cannot replace lost red blood cells, blood volume expanders can help improve oxygen delivery in instances of blood loss by increasing blood volume and blood pressure so that blood can flow to the tissues.
- Survival is possible with low red blood cell and hemoglobin levels as long as blood volume and blood pressure are maintained so blood continues to reach tissues.
- Hypovolemic shock occurs when tissue oxygenation drops due to a decrease in blood volume.
- Crystalloids volume expanders are aqueous solutions of mineral salts or other water-soluble molecules. Although they decrease the osmotic pressure by diluting the red blood cells, they increase both vascular and interstitial volume.
- Colloids volume expanders contain larger insoluble molecules, such as gelatin or hydroxyethyl starch, and theoretically increase the intravascular volume but not interstitial and intracellular volumes.
Key Terms
- crystalloid : Aqueous solutions of mineral salts or other water-soluble molecules, such as saline solution.
- hypovolemic shock : Shock due to decreased blood volume, such as through severe bleeding or vomiting. It activates dangerous compensatory mechanisms that maintain blood flow to the brain while causing other organs to fail.
- colloid : Blood volume expander containing larger insoluble molecules that exert osmotic pressure.
When blood is lost, the greatest immediate need is to stop further blood loss, then lost volume must be replaced. Blood volume is directly proportional to the blood pressure in the body, and when both decrease the flow of blood to important tissues may be inhibited. The remaining red blood cells can still oxygenate body tissue. A volume expander is a type of intravenous therapy that provides blood volume for the circulatory system. It may be used for fluid replacement.
Blood Volume and Oxygen Transport
Normal human blood has a significant excess oxygen transport capability because not all of the hemoglobin molecules are loaded with oxygen under normal conditions. As long as pulmonary function is sufficient for gas exchange and there is enough blood volume to have sufficient blood pressure, very low hemoglobin levels will be enough to sustain the patient. Those with low hemoglobin content will not be able to tolerate situations where a greater amount of oxygen is required (exercise, for example) until their hemoglobin levels are restored.
The body has compensatory feedback mechanisms to deal with lower hemoglobin levels. For instance, the heart pumps more blood with each beat, which increases blood pressure. Blood pressure is detected by the renal system, which increases blood volume and blood pressure by excreting less water during blood filtration. As a result of partial pressure gradient changes, more oxygen is released to the tissues. These adaptations are so effective that if only half of the red blood cells remain, oxygen delivery will still be around 75% of normal. A patient at rest only uses 25% of the oxygen available in their blood. In extreme cases, patients have survived with a hemoglobin level of about 1/7 the normal (i.e. 2 g/dl), although levels this low are very dangerous.
When blood loss is significant, the red blood cell level ultimately drops to a level that is too low for adequate tissue oxygenation. This is marked by hypoxia and hypovolemic shock, a condition in which tissue oxygenation drops from a lack of blood volume and harmful compensatory mechanisms activate, causing more damage. In these situations, the only alternatives are blood transfusion, packed red blood cells, or oxygen therapy.
Types of Volume Expanders
Saline solution : A bag of saline. Saline can be used to increase blood volume when a blood transfusion is not possible.
There are two main types of volume expanders: crystalloids and colloids. Crystalloids are aqueous solutions of mineral salts or other water-soluble molecules. Colloids contain larger insoluble molecules, such as gelatin; blood itself is a colloid. There are also a few other volume expanders that may be used in certain situations:
- Colloids: These solutions preserve a high-colloid osmotic pressure (protein-exerted pressure) in the blood, while this parameter is decreased by crystalloids due to hemodilution. The higher osmotic pressure from colloids draws fluids inward, preventing it from leaking out into the tissues as easily, which increases intravascular blood volume.
- Crystalloids: The most commonly used crystalloid fluid is normal saline, a solution of sodium chloride at 0.9% concentration, which is close to the concentration in the blood (isotonic). Saline solution is administered intravenously (IV drips) and increases both intravascular and interstitial volume. They decrease osmotic pressure by diluting the blood.
- Dextrose Water: This solution contains dextrose, a form of glucose. It is given to patients who have dangerously low blood sugar levels (important for cellular metabolism) as well as low blood volume.
Another common volume expander includes hydroxyethyl starch (HES/HAES, common trade names: Hespan, Voluven) which is considered a colloid. An intravenous solution of hydroxyethyl starch is used to prevent shock following severe blood loss caused by trauma, surgery, or another problem. It increases the blood volume, allowing red blood cells to continue to deliver oxygen to the body. When tissue blood perfusion is maintained, shock is averted as the dangerous compensatory mechanisms of shock aren’t activated.