6.9: Ocean Circulation and Atmospheric Circulation
Like the circulation of air, the circulation of the world's oceans is important in the latitudinal redistribution of energy. Warm ocean currents are corridors of warm water moving from the tropics poleward where they release energy to the air. Cold ocean currents are corridors of cold water moving from higher latitudes toward the equator. They absorb energy received in the tropics thus cooling the air above. A distinct correlation between the pattern of ocean currents and the air circulation above them can be made.
Ocean currents
The major ocean currents are wind-driven currents, though some ocean currents result from density and salinity variations of water. The subtropical high pressure cells are responsible for many of the Earth's great ocean currents. Examine the location of the subtropical highs and then place their position on the map of world ocean currents. See any correlation? Notice how the position of the subtropical highs and the circulation around them coincide with the circulation of many of the world's ocean currents. Take the Gulf Stream for example. As air blows out of the western side of the subtropical high it flows over a warm pool of subtropical water dragging it northward creating a warm ocean current. Approaching the eastern seaboard of the United States it is deflected toward the northeast flowing towards the north Atlantic and Europe. After crossing the Atlantic it turns into the North Atlantic Current (Drift). The Gulf Stream enhances instability and the likelihood for precipitation as air passes over it. The warmth of the North Atlantic Drift moderates the climate of The British Isles.
As air circulates around the eastern sides of the subtropical highs it blows over cold pools of water dragging them equatorward creating cold ocean currents. The Peru Current is a wind-driven cold current that flows along the coast of South America. Air moving over the cold current is stabilized, inhibiting uplift, the development of clouds and precipitation. Cool coastal deserts form along some coasts that are bordered by cold ocean currents, for example, the Atacama Desert. These deserts derive their meager moisture from fogs that form when warm, moist air masses from further out in the ocean travel over the cold current causing condensation.
Examine the map of ocean currents. The circulation of air around the subtropical highs and the currents it creates creates a general pattern to the distribution of cold and warm ocean currents. Generally speaking, warm currents are found along the east coasts of most continents and cold ocean currents along west coasts. We'll see how this pattern affects the distribution of climates in Chapter 9.
El Niño and La Niña
For centuries, we have recognized a seasonal change in Pacific ocean circulation. Peruvian fisherman in the late 1800's named the seasonal swing of ocean water "El Niño" (Spanish for the "Christ Child") as it usually occurred around Christmas. A periodic weakening of the trade winds in the central and western Pacific allows warm water to invade the eastern Pacific . Along the Peruvian coast, the encroaching warm water displaces the nutrient-rich north-flowing cold ocean current causing a decline in fisheries. Today, the phenomenon is known as the " El Niño/Southern Oscillation" and we are coming to understand how this change in the seasonal wind and ocean circulation impacts global weather patterns (See December - February conditions ; June - August conditions ). Cooler than normal ocean temperature in this region is called "La Niña". It too has significant impacts on worldwide weather.


6.3B: Choosing Leaders
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Learning Objectives
- Evaluate the seven types of leadership (functional, autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, expressive, authoritarian, and toxic) arguing which one is best
Theories of Leadership
The trait theory of leadership seeks to find attributes that all leaders possess. According to researchers of leadership, all individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks. Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as: intelligence, adjustment, extraversion, consciousness, openness to experience, and general self-efficacy.
Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers have begun to adopt a different perspective of leader individual differences–the leader attribute pattern approach. In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists’ arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables.
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men. Herbert Spencer (1884) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around. This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. By contrast, functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader’s main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion.
Styles of Leaderships
Leadership style refers to a leader’s behavior. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators. The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality. This style of leadership works well because people feel their voice is being heard, but it can result in fighting and animosity if opinions clash and decisions can not be reached. In the laissez-faire leadership style, a person may be in a leadership position without providing leadership, leaving the group to fend for itself. Subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods. Expressive leaders are concerned about the emotional well-being of the group and want the group to function harmoniously. Authoritarian leaders are dictator-like; they make all the decisions for the group and have the final say, regardless of other’s feelings or opinions. Finally, someone with a toxic leadership style is a person who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leader-follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a condition that’s worse than when he/she originally found it.
Key Points
- Situational theory states that the times produce the person and not the other way around.
- Functional leadership theory argues that the leader ‘s main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of.
- Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader.
- The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members.
- In the laissez-faire leadership style, a person may be in a leadership position without providing leadership, leaving the group to fend for itself.
- A toxic leader is someone who leaves the group in a worse-off condition than when he or she first found them.
- A toxic leader is someone who leaves the group in a worse-off condition than when he or she first found them.
Key Terms
- Toxic leadership : A toxic leader is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leader-follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when he/she first found them.
- Autocratic leadership : All decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators.
- Trait theory of leadership : It is defined as integrated patterns of personal characteristics that reflect a range of individual differences and foster consistent leader effectiveness across a variety of group and organizational situations
- leader : one who organizes or directs a group of people
Leadership is the ability to organize a group of people to achieve a common purpose. Although the leader may or may not have any formal authority, students of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence, among others. A leader is somebody who people follow, somebody who guides or directs others.


8.2.5: Chapter Summary
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Conformity refers to the change in beliefs, opinions, and behaviors that occurs as the result of social influence. The typical outcome of conformity is that peoples’ beliefs and behaviors become more similar to those of others around them.
The change in opinions or behavior that occurs when we conform to people whom we believe have accurate information is known as informational conformity. Informational conformity usually results in private acceptance, which is real change in opinions on the part of the individual.
Normative conformity occurs when we express opinions or behave in ways that help us to be accepted or that keep us from being isolated or rejected by those we care about. The outcome of normative conformity is frequently public conformity—a change in behavior that is not accompanied by an actual change in one’s private opinion.
Majority influence occurs when the views or behaviors of a larger number of individuals in the current social group prevail. Majority influence may frequently produce public conformity. One powerful example of majority influence can be found in the line-judging studies of Solomon Asch.
Minority influence occurs when the views of a smaller number of individuals prevail. Although less frequent than majority influence, minority influence can occur if the minority expresses their views consistently and confidently. An example is Moscovici’s color-judgment study. Because minorities force group members to think more fully about a topic, they can produce more creative thinking.
The extent to which we conform is influenced by the size of the majority group. The increase in the amount of conformity that is produced by adding new members to the majority group, known as the social impact of each group member, is greater for initial majority members than it is for later members.
Conformity decreases sharply when there is any disagreement among the members of the group that is trying to create influence. Unanimity is powerful in part because being the only person who is different is potentially embarrassing, and because we want to be liked by others, we may naturally want to avoid this.
Milgram’s study on obedience is an example of the power of an authority to create obedience. Milgram found that, when an authority figure accepted responsibility for the behavior of the individuals, 65% of the participants followed his instructions and administered what they thought was severe and dangerous shock to another person.
The conformity observed in Milgram’s study was due in part to the authority of the experimenter. In a replication when the experimenter had lower status, obedience was reduced. Obedience was also reduced when the experimenter’s ability to express his authority was limited by having him sit in an adjoining room and communicate to the teacher by telephone. Milgram’s studies also confirmed the role of unanimity in producing conformity.
Social power is the ability of one individual to create behavioral or belief changes in another person. Five types of social power—reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert power—vary in terms of whether they are more likely to create private acceptance or public conformity.
Leaders use many types of power to influence others. Some approaches to understanding the nature of leadership have focused on the personality of the leader, finding that variables such as intelligence and sociability are associated with good leaders. Other leadership styles, such as those exhibited by charismatic and transformational leaders, have also been studied. Other approaches, including the contingency model of leadership effectiveness, examine the conditions under which different types of leaders are most likely to be effective.
People with lower self-esteem are more likely to conform than are those with higher self-esteem, and people who are dependent on and who have a strong need for approval from others are also more conforming.
Men, on average, are more concerned about appearing to have high status by acting independently from the opinions of others; they are more likely to resist changing their beliefs in public than are women. In contrast, women, on average, are more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony; they are more likely to conform to the opinions of others in order to prevent social disagreement.
Men and women differ in their preferred leadership styles, such that women use more relationship-oriented approaches than men use. Although men are perceived to be better leaders than women, and often are more likely to become leaders, there is no evidence that either men or women are more effective leaders.
When individuals feel that their freedom is being threatened by influence attempts, and yet they also have the ability to resist that persuasion, they may develop psychological reactance and not conform at all. Reactance has been shown to occur in many real-world contexts.


23.5C: Importance of Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism.
- Explain the importance of glycolysis to cells
Key Points
- Glycolysis is present in nearly all living organisms.
- Glucose is the source of almost all energy used by cells.
- Overall, glycolysis produces two pyruvate molecules, a net gain of two ATP molecules, and two NADH molecules.
Key Terms
- glycolysis : the cellular metabolic pathway of the simple sugar glucose to yield pyruvic acid and ATP as an energy source
- heterotroph : an organism that requires an external supply of energy in the form of food, as it cannot synthesize its own
Nearly all of the energy used by living cells comes to them from the energy in the bonds of the sugar glucose. Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. One method is through secondary active transport in which the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. The other mechanism uses a group of integral proteins called GLUT proteins, also known as glucose transporter proteins. These transporters assist in the facilitated diffusion of glucose. Glycolysis is the first pathway used in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy. It takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It was probably one of the earliest metabolic pathways to evolve since it is used by nearly all of the organisms on earth. The process does not use oxygen and is, therefore, anaerobic.
Glycolysis is the first of the main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration to produce energy in the form of ATP. Through two distinct phases, the six-carbon ring of glucose is cleaved into two three-carbon sugars of pyruvate through a series of enzymatic reactions. The first phase of glycolysis requires energy, while the second phase completes the conversion to pyruvate and produces ATP and NADH for the cell to use for energy. Overall, the process of glycolysis produces a net gain of two pyruvate molecules, two ATP molecules, and two NADH molecules for the cell to use for energy. Following the conversion of glucose to pyruvate, the glycolytic pathway is linked to the Krebs Cycle, where further ATP will be produced for the cell’s energy needs.
Cellular Respiration : Glycolysis is the first pathway of cellular respiration that oxidizes glucose molecules. It is followed by the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.


3: Physical Development in Early Childhood
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- 3.1: Growth in Early Childhood
- Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years tend to grow about 3 inches in height each year and gain about 4 to 5 pounds in weight each year. The 3-year-old is very similar to a toddler with a large head, large stomach, short arms, and legs. But by the time the child reaches age 6, the torso has lengthened and body proportions have become more like those of adults. The average 6-year-old weighs approximately 46 pounds and is about 46 inches in height.
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- 3.2: Nutritional Concerns
- Caregivers who have established a feeding routine with their child can find the reduction in appetite a bit frustrating and become concerned that the child is going to starve. Caregivers need to keep in mind that they are setting up taste preferences at this age. Young children who grow accustomed to high fat, very sweet and salty flavors may have trouble eating foods that have more subtle flavors such as fruits and vegetables.
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- 3.5: Motor Skill Development
- Early childhood is a time when children are especially attracted to motion and song.  Even the booth at a restaurant affords the opportunity to slide around in the seat or disappear underneath and imagine being a sea creature in a cave! Of course, this can be frustrating to a caregiver, but it’s the business of early childhood.
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- 3.6: Sleep and Early Childhood
- Along with food and water, sleep is one of the human body's most important physiological needs—we cannot live without it. Extended sleeplessness (i.e., lack of sleep for longer than a few days) has severe psychological and physical effects. Research on rats has found that a week of no sleep leads to loss of immune function, and two weeks of no sleep leads to death. Recently, neuroscientists have learned that at least one vital function of sleep is related to learning and memory.
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- 3.7: Toilet Training
- Toilet training typically occurs after the second birthday. Some children show interest by age 2, but others may not be ready until months later. The average age for girls to be toilet trained is 29 months and for boys it is 31 months, and 98% of children are trained by 36 months (Boyse & Fitzgerald, 2010). The child’s age is not as important as his/her physical and emotional readiness. If started too early, it might take longer to train a child.
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- 3.8: Sexual Development in Early Childhood
- As children grow, they are more likely to show their genitals to siblings or peers, and to take off their clothes and touch each other (Okami et al., 1997). Masturbation is common for both boys and girls. Boys are often shown by other boys how to masturbate. But girls tend to find out accidentally. And boys masturbate more often and touch themselves more openly than do girls (Schwartz, 1999).
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- 3.10: Safety
- Child injuries are preventable, yet more than 9,000 children (from 0-19 years) died from injuries in the US in 2009. Car crashes, suffocation, drowning, poisoning, fires, and falls are some of the most common ways children are hurt or killed. The number of children dying from injury dropped nearly 30% over the last decade. However, injury is still the number 1 cause of death among children.
Thumbnail: www.pexels.com/photo/action-...ls-day-296302/


11.3: Interactive Molecules and Proteins - Direct Embedding
Our molecule adding video tutorial on YouTube: youtu.be/-Md0Y90LhyY
An interactive protein/chemical can be embedded into pages via the following steps. A more advanced Molecule Generator is discussed elsewhere.
Step 1: Identify the page you want to edit
For example, let’s say we want to edit this page:
and swap out the collagen image for an interactive image
Step 2: Identify the desired ID code
There are several ways, but best to just grab the PDB code. From the PDB, we can see the code we want is 1BKV: https://www.rcsb.org/structure/1bkv
Step 3: Edit the page (in edit mode)
Edit the page using "Edit" on black bar.
Step 4: Press Elements on toolbar
Step 5: Press Templates on toolbar
Step 6: Press “EmbedGLMol” and when queried press “Insert template”
Step 7: Edit Code
The above steps insert this red box with code. You can edit the second line (<script type…) accordingly. The simple thing is to change the code “=1a3n” to the PDB code you desire, in this case “=1bkv” and save
Step 8: Review
Review and if cool, we erase the old image (but keep the caption). There are many options to this system and we are still working them out, but you can see them in the Molecular Generator:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Visualiz...cule_Reference


5.1: The Poincaré Disk Model
The Poincaré disk model for hyperbolic geometry is the pair \((\mathbb{D},{\cal H})\) where \(\mathbb{D}\) consists of all points \(z\) in \(\mathbb{C}\) such that \(|z| \lt 1\text{,}\) and \({\cal H}\) consists of all Möbius transformations \(T\) for which \(T(\mathbb{D}) = \mathbb{D}\text{.}\) The set \(\mathbb{D}\) is called the hyperbolic plane , and \({\cal H}\) is called the transformation group in hyperbolic geometry.
We note that \(\cal H\) does indeed form a group of transformations, a fact that is worked out in the exercises. Throughout this chapter the unit circle will be called the circle at infinity , denoted by \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\text{.}\) Of course, the circle at infinity is not included in the hyperbolic plane \(\mathbb{D}\) but bounds it. The circle at infinity will be used extensively in our investigations. We note here that any Möbius transformation that sends \(\mathbb{D}\) to itself also sends \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) to itself.
Consider a cline \(C\) that is orthogonal to the circle at infinity \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\text{,}\) as in Figure \(5.1.1\). If we invert about \(C\text{,}\) \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) is inverted to itself. Moreover, this inversion takes the interior of \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\text{,}\) namely the hyperbolic plane \(\mathbb{D}\text{,}\) to itself as well, (Exercise \(3.2.10\)). It follows that compositions of two such inversions is a Möbius transformation that sends \(\mathbb{D}\) to itself, and is thus in the group \({\cal H}\text{.}\) These inversions play an important role in hyperbolic geometry, and we give them a name.
An inversion in a cline \(C\) that is orthogonal to \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) is called a reflection of the hyperbolic plane , or, a hyperbolic reflection .
It turns out that these reflections generate all the maps in \({\cal H}\text{.}\) For instance, rotation about the origin is a Möbius transformation that sends \(\mathbb{D}\) to itself, so it is in \(\cal H\text{.}\) But rotation about the origin is also the composition of two reflections about lines that intersect at the origin. Since any line through the origin meets the unit circle at right angles, reflection about such a line is a reflection of the hyperbolic plane, so rotation about the origin is the composition of two such reflections. We now prove the following general result.
Any Möbius transformation in \({\cal H}\) is the composition of two reflections of the hyperbolic plane.
- Proof
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Suppose \(T\) is a Möbius transformation that sends \(\mathbb{D}\) to itself. This means some point in \(\mathbb{D}\text{,}\) say \(z_0\text{,}\) gets sent to the origin, \(0\). Let \(z_0^*\) be the point symmetric to \(z_0\) with respect to \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\text{.}\) Since \(T\) sends the unit circle to itself, and Möbius transformations preserve symmetry points, it follows that \(T\) sends \(z_0^*\) to \(\infty\text{.}\) Furthermore, some point \(z_1\) on \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) gets sent to the point \(1\).
If \(z_0=0\text{,}\) then \(z_0^* = \infty\text{,}\) and \(T\) fixes \(0\) and \(\infty\text{.}\) Then by Example \(3.5.3\), \(T(z) = re^{i\theta}z\) is a dilation followed by a rotation. However, since \(T\) also sends \(\mathbb{D}\) onto \(\mathbb{D}\text{,}\) the dilation factor must be \(r = 1\text{.}\) So \(T\) is simply a rotation about the origin, which is the composition of two hyperbolic reflections about Euclidean lines through the origin.
Now assume \(z_0 \neq 0\text{.}\) In this case, by using \(z_0, z_0^*\text{,}\) and \(z_1\) as anchors, we may achieve \(T\) via two hyperbolic reflections, as follows:
First, invert about a circle \(C\) orthogonal to \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) that sends \(z_0\) to the origin.
Such a circle does indeed exist, and we will construct it now. As in Figure \(5.1.2\), draw circle \(C_1\) with diameter \(0z_0^*\text{.}\) Let \(p\) be a point of intersection of \(C_1\) and the unit circle \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\text{.}\) Construct the circle \(C\) through \(p\) centered at \(z_0^*\text{.}\) Since \(\angle 0pz_0^*\) is right, \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) is orthogonal to \(C\text{,}\) so inversion about \(C\) sends \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) to itself. Furthermore, since \(z_0^*\) gets sent to \(\infty\) and symmetry points must be preserved, inversion in \(C\) sends \(z_0\) to \(0\).
Thus, the first inversion takes \(z_0\) to \(0\) and \(z_0^*\) to \(\infty\text{.}\) To build \(T\) we must also send \(z_1\) to \(1\). Note that inversion in circle \(C\) will have sent \(z_1\) to some point \(z_1^\prime\) on the unit circle (since \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) is sent to itself). Now reflect across the line through the origin that bisects angle \(\angle 10z_1^\prime\text{.}\) This sends \(z_1^\prime\) to \(1\), sends \(\mathbb{D}\) to \(\mathbb{D}\text{,}\) and leaves \(0\) and \(\infty\) fixed. Composing these two inversions yields a Möbius transformation that sends \(z_0\) to \(0\), \(z_0^*\) to \(\infty\) and \(z_1\) to \(1\). Since a Möbius transformation is uniquely determined by the image of three points, this Möbius transformation is \(T\text{.}\)
Notice that in proving Theorem \(5.1.1\) we proved the following useful fact.
Given \(z_0\) in \(\mathbb{D}\) and \(z_1\) on \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) there exists a transformation in \({\cal H}\) that sends \(z_0\) to \(0\) and \(z_1\) to \(1\text{.}\)
Therefore, one may view any transformation in \({\cal H}\) as the composition of two inversions about clines orthogonal to \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\text{.}\) Moreover, these maps may be categorized according to whether the two clines of inversion intersect zero times, once, or twice. In Figure \(5.1.3\) we illustrate these three cases. In each case, we build a transformation \(T\) in \({\cal H}\) by inverting about the solid clines in the figure (first about \(L_1\text{,}\) then about \(L_2\)). The figure also tracks the journey of a point \(z\) under these inversions, first to \(z^\prime\) by inverting about \(L_1\text{,}\) then onto \(T(z)\) by inverting \(z^\prime\) about \(L_2\text{.}\) The dashed clines in the figure represent some of the clines of motion, the clines along which points are moved by the transformation. Notice these clines of motion are orthogonal to both clines of inversion. Let's work through the three cases in some detail.
If the two clines of inversion, \(L_1\) and \(L_2\text{,}\) intersect inside \(\mathbb{D}\text{,}\) say at the point \(p\text{,}\) then they also intersect outside \(\mathbb{D}\) at the point \(p^*\) symmetric to \(p\) with respect to the unit circle since both clines are orthogonal to \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\text{.}\) This scene is shown in Figure \(5.1.3(a)\). The resulting Möbius transformation will fix \(p\) (and \(p^*\)), causing a rotation of points in \(\mathbb{D}\) around \(p\) along type II clines of \(p\) and \(p^*\text{.}\) Not surprisingly, we will call this type of map in \({\cal H}\) a rotation of the hyperbolic plane about the point \(p\text{;}\) or, if the context is clear, we call such a map a rotation about \(p\text{.}\)
If the clines of inversion intersect just once, then it must be at a point \(p\) on the unit circle. Otherwise, the symmetric point \(p^*\text{,}\) which would be distinct from \(p\text{,}\) would also belong to both clines, giving us two points of intersection. The resulting map moves points along circles in \(\mathbb{D}\) that are tangent to the unit circle at this point \(p\text{.}\) Circles in \(\mathbb{D}\) that are tangent to the unit circle are called horocycles , and this type of map is called a parallel displacement . See Figure \(5.1.3(b)\).
If the clines of inversion do not intersect, then at least one of the clines must be a circle; and according to Theorem \(3.2.7\), there are two points \(p\) and \(q\) symmetric with respect to both clines. These two points will be fixed by the resulting Möbius transformation, since each inversion sends \(p\) to \(q\) and \(q\) to \(p\text{.}\) Furthermore, these two fixed points must live on the unit circle by a symmetric points argument (the details of which are left as an exercise). In other words, if the clines of inversion \(L_1\) and \(L_2\) do not intersect, then they are type II clines of the fixed points \(p\) and \(q\) of the resulting transformation in \({\cal H}\text{.}\) Moreover, this transformation will push points along type I clines of \(p\) and \(q\text{.}\) We call such a Möbius transformation in \({\cal H}\) a translation of the hyperbolic plane or, simply, a translation . See Figure \(5.1.3(c)\).
Figure \(5.1.4(a)\) depicts the image of the figure \(M\) (resembling the letter ‘M’) under two applications of a rotation \(T\) of the hyperbolic plane about point \(p\text{.}\) This rotation is generated by two inversions about clines \(L_1\) and \(L_2\) that intersect at \(p\) (and meet \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) at right angles). The figure \(M\) is pictured, as is \(T(M)\) and \(T(T(M))\text{.}\) The figure also tracks successive images of a point \(z\) on \(M\text{:}\) \(z\) gets mapped to \(T(z)\) which gets mapped to \(T^2(z) = T(T(z))\text{.}\) By this map \(T\text{,}\) any point \(z\) in \(\mathbb{D}\) rotates around \(p\) along the unique type II cline of \(p\) and \(p^*\) that contains \(z\text{.}\)
Figure \(5.1.4(b)\) depicts the image of \(M\) under two applications of a translation of the hyperbolic plane. The translation is generated by two inversions about non-intersecting clines \(L_1\) and \(L_2\) (that meet \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) at right angles). The fixed points of the map are the points \(p\) and \(q\) on the circle at infinity. Under this translation, any point \(z\) in \(\mathbb{D}\) heads away from \(p\) and toward \(q\) on the unique cline through the three points \(p,q\text{,}\) and \(z\text{.}\)
We now derive the following algebraic description of transformations in \(\cal H\text{:}\)
Any transformation \(T\) in the group \(\cal H\) has the form
\[ T(z) = e^{i\theta}\frac{z - z_0}{1-\overline{z}_0z} \]
where \(\theta\) is some angle, and \(z_0\) is the point inside \(\mathbb{D}\) that gets sent to \(0\).
Assume \(z_0\) is in \(\mathbb{D}\text{,}\) \(z_1\) is on the unit circle \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\text{,}\) and that the map \(T\) in \({\cal H}\) sends \(z_0 \mapsto 0\text{,}\) \(z_0^* \mapsto \infty\) and \(z_1 \mapsto 1\text{.}\) Using the cross ratio,
\[ T(z) = (z,z_1;z_0,z_0^*) = \frac{z_1-z_0^*}{z_1-z_0}\cdot\frac{z-z_0}{z-z_0^*}\text{.} \]
But \(z_0^* = \dfrac{1}{\overline{z_0}}\text{,}\) so
\[ T(z) = \frac{z_1-1/\overline{z_0}}{z_1-z_0}\cdot\frac{z-z_0}{z-1/\overline{z_0}} = \frac{\overline{z_0}z_1 - 1}{z_1-z_0}\cdot\frac{z-z_0}{\overline{z_0}z- 1}\text{.} \]
Now, the quantity
\[ \frac{\overline{z_0}z_1 - 1}{z_1-z_0} \]
is a complex constant, and it has modulus equal to \(1\). To see this, observe that since \(1 = |z_1|^2 = z_1\overline{z_1}\text{,}\)
\begin{align*} \frac{\overline{z_0}z_1 - 1}{z_1 - z_0}& =\frac{\overline{z_0}z_1 - z_1\overline{z_1}}{z_1 - z_0}\\ & = \frac{-z_1(\overline{z_1 - z_0})}{z_1-z_0}\text{.} \end{align*}
Since \(|z_1| = 1\) and, in general \(|\beta| = |\overline{\beta}|\) we see that this expression has modulus \(1\), and can be expressed as \(e^{i\theta}\) for some \(\theta\text{.}\) Thus, if \(T\) is a transformation in \(\cal H\) it may be expressed as
\[ T(z) = e^{i\theta}\frac{z - z_0}{1-\overline{z}_0z} \]
where \(\theta\) is some angle, and \(z_0\) is the point inside \(\mathbb{D}\) that gets sent to \(0\).
Is the converse true? Is every transformation in the form above actually a member of \({\cal H}\text{?}\) The answer is yes, and the reader is asked to work through the details in the exercises.
Exercises
Prove that \((\mathbb{D}, {\cal H})\) is homogeneous.
Suppose \(T\) is a Möbius transformation of the form
\[ T(z) = e^{i\theta}\frac{z - z_0}{1-\overline{z}_0z}, \]
where \(z_0\) is in \(\mathbb{D}\text{.}\) Prove that \(T\) maps \(\mathbb{D}\) to \(\mathbb{D}\) by showing that if \(|z| \lt 1\) then \(|T(z)| \lt 1\text{.}\)
- Hint
-
It is easier to prove that \(|z|^2 \lt 1\) implies \(|T(z)|^2 \lt 1\text{.}\)
Construct the fixed points of the hyperbolic translation defined by the inversion of two nonintersecting clines that intersect \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) at right angles, as shown in the following diagram.
Suppose \(p\) and \(q\) are two points in \(\mathbb{D}\text{.}\) Construct two clines orthogonal to \(\mathbb{S}^1_\infty\) that, when inverted about in composition, send \(p\) to \(0\) and \(q\) to the positive real axis.
Prove that any two horocycles in \((\mathbb{D},{\cal H})\) are congruent.
Prove that \(\cal H\) is a group of transformations.


4.4: Physical, Cognitive, and Social Development in Childhood
Infancy: Birth to 12 months
Physically, infants grow very quickly. Infant growth occurs from the head down (Leahy, Fuzy & Grafe, 2013). This is the reason why an infant’s head may appear bigger than their body. Infants gain control over the head and neck muscles before they gain control over their arms and legs (Santrock, 2009). It is very important to remember to always provide support for an infant’s head and neck as they do not have the ability to provide this support for themselves. Never rush a baby to perform any skills they are unable to do before they are physically ready. For example, people should not rush an infant to walk if they are not yet able to stand.  Infants require a lot of sleep during this time period and may sleep between 10 and 21 hours per day (Santrock). Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should provide the baby with a safe environment in which to sleep, such as a crib. Do not put stuffed animals or too many blankets in the crib as this could potentially lead to suffocation.
Language development is also very fast at this stage. Babies move from saying a word or two at around 12 to 13 months to having a vocabulary of about 200 words by 2 years of age (Santrock, 2009)! It is important that children have plenty of interaction with others who speak with them in order to develop their language skills. Infancy is also an important time for children to begin to develop trust in others. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should ensure that the baby they are working with has all their needs met such as being fed, bathed, changed when diapers are soiled, and comforted when they are crying. This helps to support positive development and trusting relationships in caretakers.
According to Piaget, a child at this stage would be in the sensorimotor stage. To support cognitive development of children at this age, Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should provide lots of stimulation with safe toys they can touch and move with a variety of colors and shapes. Allow babies to explore their environment in safe ways. Babies are very interested in putting things into their mouths to explore their world. Provide safe toys for a baby to do this.
True or False?
Babies learn to trust by having their physical and emotional needs met by their caretakers. True or False. _______
Safe and stimulating toys help babies explore their world.True or False. ________
When holding a baby a person should always support the head and neck. True or False. _______
- Answer
-
1. True
2. True
3. True
Feedback :
1. It is important for caretakers to provide a safe and secure environment for babies in order that they learn to trust the world around them. This includes feeding when hungry, changing soiled diapers and bathing when dirty. Handling babies with care and using a calm and soothing voice when working with babies also helps them to learn trust.
2. Babies explore the world around them by putting objects into their mouth and using physical movements such as pushing and kicking. The HHA/PCA can help a child’s physical and cognitive development by providing toys that are stimulating and safe for which to play.
3.  Babies do not have control over their head or neck muscles, so the HHA/PCA needs to take care to provide this support for the head and neck during handling of an infant.
Toddler: 1-3 years
Toddlers continue to grow and develop physically. This is also a time of great growth cognitively and socially. Children at this stage advance with their ability to use gross motor skills (activities using large muscles such as kicking a ball or walking) as well as fine motor skills (activities using smaller muscles such as picking up paper or drawing) (Santrock, 2009).
Toddlers have a desire to become independent as they now see themselves as separate from their parents or caretakers. Independence should be encouraged in a safe manner. For example, infants who want to climb the stairs themselves should not be allowed to do so. However, with support and careful assistance from a HHA/PCA standing behind them and providing assistance, toddlers can learn to go up the stairs one at a time safely.
Toddlers also learn to gain control over their bowel and bladders during this time. Praise should always be provided during toilet training and children should not be scolded if they have “accidents” or wet the bed. This will only damage their self-esteem.
Since this is a time of great exploration, care should always be taken to provide for a safe environment. Medications, cleaning supplies, and other hazardous chemicals and objects should be locked up and away from a toddler’s reach.
Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should provide encouragement for a toddler to explore their environment and to play games such as make-believe. This is also an important time to develop routines and rules to follow. Toddlers may have temper tantrums when they do not get their way and scream, kick, or throw things. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should remain calm and be firm yet gentle as they redirect them toward another activity.
According to Piaget, children at this stage are in the Sensorimotor to Preoperational Stages, depending on their age. Children at this age begin to represent the world using symbols, and inanimate objects can take on lifelike qualities. There is a great deal of imagination at use. Puppets, coloring, drawing, and make-believe play are good opportunities to help a child develop cognitively at this stage.Exploration of the environment around them is important. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should provide lots of play opportunities for the child. Allow them to learn what they are capable of doing, such as building towers with blocks. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should assist with development of language by reading to the child and pointing to objects in books as they name them.
True or False?
1. A person should scold and punish a child who has had an “accident” or wet his or her pants.True or False. ____________
2. Safety is a major concern during the toddler years as toddlers are very curious about their environment and are trying to become independent.True or False. __________
Multiple Choice
3. Drawing is a way to help children develop this kind of motor skill:
a). Gross motor skills
b). Fine motor skills
4. These types of motor skills involve large muscles of the body and are used during walking.
a). Gross motor skills
b). Fine motor skills
- Answer
-
1. False
2. True
3. B
4. A
Feedback :
1. A caretaker should never scold a child for having an “accident”. This would be very damaging to the child’s self-esteem. Children are just learning control over their bowels and bladders during the toddler years. The HHA/PCA should provide frequent opportunities for the child to use the bathroom and provide praise when the child has successfully used the restroom.
2. Toddlers are very curious and have a strong desire to be independent. This could lead them to get hurt. The HHA/PCA should be cautious to provide the child with opportunities to become independent and explore their world, but to do so in a safe manner and under supervision.
3. Fine motor skills are those that use smaller muscles of the body. Writing, drawing, using a fork, and picking up small items are activities that use smaller muscle groups and develop fine motor skills.
4. Gross motor skills are those skills that use large muscles of the body. Walking, running, riding on a bicycle, and swimming are activities that use large muscle groups and develop gross motor skills.
Preschool: 3-6 years
Physical development continues during the preschool years. Gross and fine motor skills continue to develop. Physical activity is important to help children develop motor skills and to maintain healthy weight. During the preschool years, children continue to gain independence and begin to form social relationships.
Vocabulary and language development is very fast. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should continue to read to the child but allow them to read if they are able.Provide lots of encouragement and praise during reading to help build self-confidence. Encourage children to develop language and fine motor skills through writing and drawing activities. This is also a good time to begin to teach children right from wrong and to take on small responsibilities within the home such as cleaning up their toys or helping to set the table. This will encourage self-esteem to flourish. According to Piaget, the child continues to be in the Preoperational Stage of cognitive development. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should continue to provide play opportunities and encourage imagination and exploration of the world around them.
True or False?
1. Make believe and games that encourage imagination are important activities for the preschool child. True or False. __________
- Answer
-
1. True
Feedback :
1. Exploring the world through imagination is an important cognitive and social task of the preschool child.
School Age: 6-11 or 12 years
School age children continue to grow but at a more consistent and steady rate than in earlier childhood (Santrock, 2009). Children at this age become involved in many physical activities which continue to help improve their muscle coordination and balance. Children often become involved in activities such as running, bike riding, skating, and swimming. These are good activities for children and will help them to maintain a healthy weight.
The school age years are a time of great cognitive and social growth. Children enter school often for the first time and begin to develop social connections and friendships. They begin to learn gender behaviors (how females and males act) (Santrock, 2009). Their sense of self-esteem is developing and opportunities to encourage and praise should be sought.
School age children may need assistance with completing their homework and studying for exams. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should provide opportunities for children to read by allowing them to read to them or their loved ones and to practice writing skills. Provide lots of encouragement and praise during reading to help build self-confidence. Provide assistance when the child struggles with a word but do not take over or make them feel badly for not being able to recognize a word. Help them to sound it out. This is the time period when learning disabilities may become apparent. If Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides notice the child appears to struggle with keeping attention, reading, writing, or with math, they should inform their supervisor. There are many support systems in place within schools to help children who struggle with learning. Specialists such as speech therapists and social workers may be added to the team to work with children who struggle with speech problems or emotional issues.
According to Piaget, children at this stage are in the Concrete Operational Stage and are better able to reason logically if there are specific and concrete situations. Support their cognitive development by working with them with games such as memory and using math and language workbooks.
True or False?
1. Signs of a learning disability may include trouble paying attention and difficulty reading.True or False. ________
2. Exercise and play are important activities to help children maintain a healthy weight and to socialize with their peers.True or False. ______
- Answer
-
1. True
2. True
Feedback :
1. During the school age years when the child enters school, a learning disability may become evident. If the HHA/PCA notices the child struggling with reading, writing, math, or keeping attention and staying focused on school-work, they should inform their supervisor. Many support systems are in place to assist children who may struggle with learning. This will help them become successful in school and life.
2. The HHA/PCA should encourage and provide opportunities for children to engage in exercise through biking, swimming, and other games such as basketball and soccer. This will help them to maintain a healthy weight and to learn important social skills as they play with other children.
Adolescence: 11 years to 19 years
The adolescent years are when puberty occurs. Puberty is a stage of development when hormones change and secondary sex characteristics such as body hair, breast and testicular growth occurs (Leahy, Fuzy & Grafe, 2013). Teens may begin to shave for the first time. Self-care is important and opportunities to provide assistance and encouragement to maintain personal hygiene should be provided. Teenagers may suffer from oily skin and acne and care should be taken to keep the face and body cleaned. Most teens become very focused on their appearance during this time and may need encouragement and support to deal with changing moods and worries about how they look or if peers like them.
This is also a time where peer pressure (pressure from other children of the same age) can become intense (Santrock, 2009). Teens may experiment with romantic or sexual relationships, drugs, alcohol, or smoking. This is a good time to provide education about these topics. If Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides have any concerns about a teen they work with using substances such as alcohol, drugs, cigarettes, or engaging in sexual activity, they should inform their supervisor.
Some teens may experience eating disorders because of concerns about their physical appearance. Anorexia is a disorder in which a person does not eat or exercises excessively (Leahy, Fuzy & Grafe, 2013). Bulimia nervosa is a disorder in which the person eats very large amounts of food and then purges (vomits) or uses laxatives to have bowel movements in order to eliminate the food. Both disorders have very serious physical and emotional consequences, and could result in malnourishment, serious physical problems such as heart disorders, and psychological problems such as depression or suicidal thoughts. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should immediately inform their supervisor if they suspect the teen with whom they are working has an eating disorder or an emotional issue such as depression or thoughts of suicide. Medical and psychological intervention, and sometimes hospitalizations and medications may be necessary to help a teen with these disorders.
According to Piaget, adolescents begin to enter the Formal Operations Stage in which they can think in abstract ways about things that are not in front of them. Adolescents begin to wonder about their future lives. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should support this development by discussing with them thoughts about what they would like to do in the future and support their interests and dreams.
Multiple Choice
1. This eating disorder involves not eating or exercising excessively:
a). anorexia
b). bulimia nervosa
2. This eating disorder involves purging after eating or the use of laxatives
a). anorexia
b). bulimia nervosa
True or False?
3. Teens who make statements about wanting to die are at risk for suicide and a person should report this to a supervisor immediately. True or False. _______
- Answer
-
1. A
2. B
3. True
Feedback :
1. Anorexia is an eating disorder in which the person does not eat or exercises excessively.
2. Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which the person purges and vomits or uses laxatives to rid their body of food.
3. Any person, including teens who makes a statement about wanting to die are at risk for suicide. The HHA/PCA should immediately inform their supervisor to get the help the person needs.


1.3: Organic Molecules
Introduction
In its simplest definition, organic compounds include all molecules that contain carbon. By this definition, simple molecules such as carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) would be defined as organic molecules, however, these simple molecules behave more like inorganic molecules than organic molecules. Therefore, other definitions of organic molecules state that organic molecules are molecules containing both hydrogen and carbon . For our studies, we define organic molecules using the latter definition.
The four main groups of biologically important organic compounds are carbohydrates , lipids , proteins and nucleic acids . These compounds are also known as biological macromolecules and all but the nucleic acids are the common food categories listed on Nutrition Facts panels. These biologically important macromolecules play essential roles in cell and organismal structure, energy and heredity. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, these biologically important organic compounds also contain the four other “building block” elements: oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S) .
In this lab, we will use chemical indicators and chemical tests to detect the presence of biological macromolecules. Chemical indicators are substances that react in a characteristic fashion, often a color change, if a particular molecule is present.
Each test will include a positive control and a negative control . A positive control is a test substance that should reliably produce a positive result . It shows what a positive reaction looks like. It contains the compound for which we are testing and all the appropriate chemical indicator(s). A negative control is a test substance that should reliably produce a negative result . It shows what a negative reaction looks like. It usually contains just distilled water ( dH 2 O ) and the appropriate indicator(s). To be valid, a negative control is placed through all the physical steps of a positive control such as heating, changing of pH, etc., if required.
Positive and negative controls differ from the control groups we studied in the Scientific Method lab. Remember, a control group is a test group of subjects that does not receive the treatment under investigation and is used as the baseline for comparison to an experimental group .
- Flame test for Carbon (optional instructor demonstration)
Exercise 1: *Wear protective goggles and gloves during this activity.*
Organic molecules contain carbon and hydrogen. Substances that contain carbon will burn and blacken. To test a substance for carbon, place the substance in a test tube and hold it over a flame for a few moments. If the substance blackens then it contains carbon and is an organic molecule.
|
Substance |
Did it blacken? |
Is it organic or inorganic? |
|
Salt |
||
|
Sugar |
||
|
Gelatin |
- Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and are composed of monosaccharide building blocks. Glucose and fructose are examples of monosaccharides and are often called simple sugars. Simple sugars can exist in linear or ring structures, but in most biological situations containing water they exist in the ring structure (Figure 1). Two simple sugars bound together form a disaccharide . An example of a disaccharide is sucrose, commonly known as table sugar. Sucrose is formed by a glycosidic covalent bond linking glucose and fructose (Figure 2). Lactose is also a disaccharide composed of galactose and glucose.
Polysaccharides are long chains of many subunits of simple sugars covalently bound together. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates due to their large structure. Starch and cellulose are polysaccharides found in plants. Plants store extra energy in the form of the polysaccharide starch. The complex carbohydrate, cellulose is an important structural material in many plants. Animals store some extra energy (for short-term storage) in the form of the polysaccharide glycogen.
Carbohydrates play important roles in organismal structure and as main sources of energy for cells. Simple sugars, such as glucose, enter directly into metabolic pathways (such as glycolysis) to provide ATP for cells. When larger polysaccharides, such as starch, are consumed by organisms the complex carbohydrates must be broken down by water and enzymes into simpler sugars before they can enter into metabolic pathways to yield ATP.
Exercise 2: Testing for Carbohydrates - Benedict’s Test for Reducing Sugars
All Monosaccharides are reducing sugars. The disaccharides maltose (glucose + glucose) and lactose (glucose + galactose) have a free aldehyde group and are also reducing sugars. Reducing sugars are able to reduce (add electrons to) other molecules. Reducing sugars have a free carbonyl group (a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom) that can react to donate electrons. The disaccharide sucrose lacks free carbonyl groups due to the glycosidic bond that links glucose and fructose to create the disaccharide (Figure 2). Therefore, sucrose is not a reducing sugar. Benedict’s reagent is a solution of copper sulfate, sodium carbonate and sodium citrate and is the indicator used to test for the presence of reducing sugars . In the absence of such sugars, Benedict’s reagent is a bright royal blue color, and clear (not cloudy). However, when heated in the presence of a reducing sugar, it accepts electrons from the reducing sugar and changes color. It also becomes cloudy as it forms a precipitate (an insoluble solid that emerges from a liquid solution) of cuprous oxide. Any color change is considered a positive reaction. However, the degree of color change depends on the amount of reducing sugar present (Figure 3). A change from blue to yellow, or green, indicates a small amount of reducing sugar. A change from blue to red, or orange, indicates a large amount of reducing sugar. Note that heating the Benedict’s reagent for too long can cause false positive results.
Benedict’s Test for Reducing Sugars
Materials Required
Test tube rack Distilled water (dH2O) Test tube holder
7 test tubes Transfer pipettes Red wax pencil (or Sharpie)
Starch solution Benedict’s reagent Boiling water bath (or heat block)
Unknown (#1- #4) Glucose solution Potato
Cow’s milk Sucrose solution
*Each lab group should pick only ONE of the 4 unknown solutions to use for each of the following tests. Different lab groups will use different unknown solutions and then relay the results of their unknown solution to the other lab groups.
Procedure:
*wear gloves and safety goggles when performing this activity*
- Use the red wax pencil (or Sharpie) to number seven clean test tubes #1 through #7.
- Use a pipette to transfer 1 mL of the test substances/solutions listed in Table 2 to the corresponding labeled test tubes.
- Add 0.5 ml of Benedict’s reagent to each tube. Swirl to mix. Record the color of solution in each tube in Table 2 below before heating the tubes.
- Place the tubes in a gently boiling water bath (or heat block) for 2 minutes . Using a test tube holder, carefully remove the test tubes from the water bath and place in the test tube rack to cool. Hold a white sheet of paper behind the tubes to more easily see the colors. Record any color changes, or changes in appearance, in Table 2.
- Use color change information to determine the conclusion for each tube (whether or not each solution contains reducing sugars). A positive result indicates that the solution contains the macromolecule being tested for (reducing sugars). A negative result means that the solution does not contain reducing sugars.
-
Discard contents of test tubes in the location indicated by your instructor
.
- Use test tube brushes to wash tubes with soapy water. Rinse thoroughly and shake out excess water. Return test tubes to the proper location.
- Some test tubes are disposable. If this is the case, recycle them in the proper receptacle.
|
Test Tube |
Substance Tested |
Color before heating |
Final color after Test |
Conclusion: Positive (+) or Negative (-) |
|
1 |
Distilled water |
|||
|
2 |
Glucose solution |
|||
|
3 |
Milk |
|||
|
4 |
Starch solution |
|||
|
5 |
Sucrose solution |
|||
|
6 |
Potato |
|||
|
7 |
Unknown # ____ |
Exercise 3: Testing for Carbohydrates - Iodine Test for Starch
Polysaccharides are very long chains of monosaccharides and do not react with Benedict’s reagent . Starch, cellulose and glycogen are examples of polysaccharides. Because these complex carbohydrates are not reducing sugars, and therefore do not chemically react with Benedict’s reagent, a different indicator is required to test for the presence of these complex polysaccharides.
Starch is the storage polysaccharide of plants and is highly digestible when consumed by animals. Iodine (aka Lugol’s Iodine) (I2KI), an amber-colored clear liquid, is the indicator used to detect the presence of starch. The starch molecules interact with iodine to produce a dark blue-black color (Figure 4). Glycogen , the storage polysaccharide in animals, reacts to a lesser extent with Lugol’s to produce a red-brown or reddish-purple color.
Iodine Test for Starch
Materials Required
dH2O Transfer pipettes sucrose solution Toothpicks
Starch solution Glucose solution
Iodine Unknown (#1 - #4) cracker
Potato paper 9 or 12-well spot plate (Figure 5)
Procedure:
- Use the red wax pencil or Sharpie to label the wells of the well plate with #1-8 (if not already labeled).
- Use a transfer pipette to transfer 1ml of the test substances listed in Table 3 to the appropriately numbered well. *For the solid substances, cut a small piece of the substance and place it into the appropriately numbered well.
- Add 2 drops of Iodine to each well (or onto the solid substance). Mix using a toothpick (for solutions). Use a new toothpick for each well .
- Place the well plate over a white paper so any color changes are easily visible. Record the color of each reaction in Table 3.
- Discard the contents of the well plate as instructed. Rinse the plate thoroughly with soap and water.
|
Well |
Substance Tested |
Final color after Test |
Conclusion: Positive or Negative |
|
1 |
Distilled Water |
||
|
2 |
Starch Solution |
||
|
3 |
Glucose Solution |
||
|
4 |
Sucrose Solution |
||
|
5 |
Paper |
||
|
6 |
Potato |
||
|
7 |
Cracker |
||
|
8 |
Unknown # ____ |
III. Proteins
Proteins are essential for organisms to survive and are a highly abundant macromolecule in the body. The monomer building blocks of proteins are amino acids . Amino acids are linked through covalent peptide bonds to form polypeptides, also known as proteins. Proteins serve diverse and vital roles in our bodies. Some proteins are important structural proteins in cells, such as tubulin. Other proteins play vital structural and protective roles in organisms, such as keratin. Actin and myosin are proteins that work together in muscle cells to provide movement. Most enzymes, such as DNA polymerase, are proteins and are essential to speed up biological reactions in cells. Ribulose-1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase (commonly known as Rubisco), catalyzes carbon fixation during photosynthesis and is thought to be the most abundant enzyme on earth. Additionally, antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system to protect us from invading pathogens.
Exercise 4: Testing for Proteins
Biuret reagent, a light aquamarine-colored liquid, is used to detect the presence of proteins. Copper ions in the Biuret reagent react with peptide bonds causing a color change from its original color to purple or pink. Proteins with short peptide chains turn pink; those with longer chains turn purple (Figure 6). Other types of molecules can cause color changes, but only the purple or pink colors indicate the presence of peptide bonds. Note that a positive Biuret reaction only occurs at an elevated pH; therefore, Biuret reagent contains a strong base (NaOH) turning it a turquoise color. Some protocols include adding additional NaOH to test tubes at the time of protein testing.
Biuret Test for Proteins
Materials Required
5 Test tubes Toothpicks Albumin
Unknown (#1 - #4) Biuret reagent Milk
Sucrose solution Transfer pipettes dH2O
Procedure:
*wear gloves and safety goggles when performing this activity*
- Use the red wax pencil (or Sharpie) to number 5 clean test tubes # 1 through # 5.
- Use a pipette to transfer 1 mL of the test substances/solutions listed in Table 4 to the corresponding labeled test tubes.
- Add 0.5 ml of Biruet reagent to each test tube. Swirl to mix. Record the color of the liquid in each well in Table 4. Hold a white sheet of paper behind the test tubes to more easily see the colors of the solutions.
-
Discard contents of the test tubes in location indicated by your instructor.
- Use test tube brushes to wash tubes with soapy water. Rinse thoroughly and shake out excess water. Return test tubes to the proper location.
- Some test tubes are disposable. If this is the case, recycle them in the proper receptacle.
|
Test Tube |
Substance Tested |
Final color after Test |
Conclusion: Positive (+) or Negative (-) |
|
1 |
Water |
||
|
2 |
Albumin (egg white) |
||
|
3 |
Sucrose Solution |
||
|
4 |
Milk |
||
|
5 |
Unknown # ___ |
IV. Lipids
Lipids are a diverse group of nonpolar, hydrophobic, energy-dense organic molecules. Lipids such as triglycerides, phospholipids and sterols play many important biological roles. All membranes in a cell are composed of phospholipids. Many hormones important in sexual development are derivatives of sterol molecules. The most abundant type of lipid in the human diet and human body is triglycerides . Triglycerides consist of three fatty acids bound to one glycerol molecule. If the fatty acids contain only single bonds between the carbon atoms then the fatty acid (and the triglyceride) is “saturated” with hydrogens and referred to as a saturated fatty acid. If the fatty acids contain one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms then the fatty acid (and triglyceride) is referred to as an unsaturated fatty acid. Saturated triglycerides are solid at room temperature and are commonly called fats. Unsaturated triglycerides are liquid at room temperature and are commonly called oils.
Exercise 5: Ethanol Emulsion Test for Lipids
Lipids are nonpolar molecules and cannot dissolve in polar solvents such as water. However, lipids can dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as ethanol. The presence of lipids can be tested using an ethanol emulsion test . An emulsion is formed when two substances that do not dissolve into one another are mixed together. A common example of an emulsion is oil and vinegar salad dressing. When undisturbed, the oil and vinegar separate out into two distinct layers. When you shake it up, the oil and vinegar combine, and the oil forms tiny droplets floating in the vinegar.
Ethanol is an amphipathic molecule; it has both polar and nonpolar ends. Because of the nonpolar component of the molecule, ethanol can dissolve lipids; however, because of it’s polar component, ethanol can also mix with water. The ethanol emulsion test works because of the amphipathic nature of ethanol. When lipids are present in a sample, they dissolve in the first step when mixed with ethanol, and the mixture remains clear. However, in the second step of the test when added to water, the lipids are forced out of solution and appear as tiny fat droplets, which reflect light and appear whitish (Figure 7). The ethanol emulsion test allows fats in solid materials (such as potato chips) to be extracted in ethanol and then form an emulsion when added to water.
Materials Required
Test tube rack Transfer pipettes dH2O
12 test tubes Ethanol Half and half
Red wax pencil (or Sharpie) Vegetable oil Unknown (#1 - #4)
Sucrose solution Mortar & pestle Parafilm
Procedure:
- Use the red wax pencil (or Sharpie) to number 6 clean test tubes #1 through #6. Then, repeat, labeling a second set of test tubes #1 through #6.
- Use a pipette to transfer 1 mL of the test substances/solutions listed in Table 5 to the corresponding labeled test tubes. *For solid substances, crush the test substance into small pieces, using a mortar and pestle, and add it to the test tube to approximately the same height on the test tube as the liquid substances.
- Use a clean pipette to transfer 2 mL of ethanol into each tube. Use a gloved finger or parafilm to cap the tubes and shake well to mix.
- Allow the contents to settle for about 30 seconds.
- Use a clean pipette to remove the top half of the solution and transfer it to a clean labeled test tube.
- Add 2mL of dH 2 O to each tube, and observe the results. The appearance of a milky whitish layer indicates the presence of lipids in the sample. Record your observations in Table 5 below.
-
Discard contents of test tubes in the location indicated by your instructor
.
- Use test tube brushes to wash tubes with soapy water. Rinse thoroughly and shake out excess water. Return test tubes to the proper location.
- Some test tubes are disposable. If this is the case, recycle them in the proper receptacle.
|
Test tube |
Substance Tested |
Observations at end of test |
Conclusion: Positive (+) or Negative (-) |
|
1 |
Distilled Water |
||
|
2 |
Vegetable Oil |
||
|
3 |
Sucrose Solution |
||
|
4 |
Half and half |
||
|
5 |
Potato chips |
||
|
6 |
Unknown #____ |
Exercise 6: Grease Spot Test for Lipids (alternative lipid test)
The grease spot test is a simple test to observe the presence of lipids in a substance. In the grease spot test, a drop of the test substance is placed onto brown paper and allowed to dry. If the test substance is a solid substance, then the solid is crushed and rubbed onto the brown paper. The liquids must be given ample time to dry. Water placed onto brown paper will dry and the spot will disappear. Substances containing lipids dry but still appear wet, leaving a translucent spot that is easily visible when the brown paper is held up to the light (Figure 8). You might have observed this type of result if you’ve noticed grease spots on a paper bag when picking up greasy take-out foods.
Materials Required
Sucrose solution Transfer pipettes dH2O
Brown paper squares Half and half Pencil
Vegetable oil Unknown
Procedure:
- Use a pencil to label 6 small squares of brown paper with the test substances listed in Table 6.
- Place a drop of the test substance on the appropriately labeled brown paper and rub it into the paper. If the test substance is a solid material then thoroughly rub the solid onto the brown paper, making sure that there is thorough contact with the test substance and paper.
- Place the brown papers in a location where they are exposed to air and will dry quickly (such as on top of a test tube rack).
- When the distilled water sample has dried (approximately 5-10 minutes), observe the brown papers by holding them up to the light. A clear, translucent spot indicates lipids are present. If the spot on the brown paper has evaporated and disappeared completely then no lipids are present.
- Record your observations in Table 6 below.
- Dispose of the used brown paper squares in the trash.
|
Brown paper |
Substance Tested |
Observation after drying |
Conclusion: Positive or Negative |
|
1 |
Distilled Water |
||
|
2 |
Vegetable Oil |
||
|
3 |
Sucrose Solution |
||
|
4 |
Half and half |
||
|
5 |
Potato chips |
||
|
6 |
Unknown #____ |
Exercise 7: Testing Unknown Substances
- In Table 7 compile the data from all of the tests of your unknown.
- Determine what compounds (reducing sugar, starch, lipid, protein) are present in your unknown.
- Based on the macromolecules in the unknown, try to determine the identity of your unknown food. The unknowns are all foods/beverages that are commonly consumed at breakfast time.
|
Unknown Solution # |
Benedict’s Test (+ or -) |
Iodine Test (+ or -) |
Biuret Test (+ or -) |
Ethanol Emulsion Test (+ or -) |
Grease spot test (+ or -) |
List Organic Molecule(s) Present |
|
1 |
|
|||||
|
2 |
|
|||||
|
3 |
|
|||||
|
4 |
|
Questions for Review
- What simple test can you perform to tell whether a substance is organic or not?
- What is the purpose of a positive control? Give examples of positive controls used in this lab. Be specific.
- What is the purpose of a negative control? Why did we use water as a negative control in many experiments?
- Most monosaccharides and disaccharides are reducing sugars. Explain why the disaccharide, sucrose, is not able to function as a reducing sugar?
- Complete the table below:
|
Macromolecule |
Indicator/Test used for detection |
Positive results appear as.. |
|
Organic molecule |
||
|
Reducing Sugars (most simple carbohydrates) |
||
|
Starch |
||
|
Ethanol Emulsion Test |
||
|
Greasy Spot test |
||
|
Proteins |
- What major characteristic do ALL lipids have in common? Explain.
Practical Challenge Questions
- You are given an unknown sample and get the following results:
|
Biuret |
Light purple color |
|
Iodine |
Yellowish color |
|
Benedicts |
Orange color |
|
Ethanol Emulsion |
Clear liquid |
|
Flame test |
blackened |
- Based on these results, what can you infer about which organic molecule(s) are in the unknown sample?
- Speculate on the identity of this test substance. (what do you think the test substance could be).
- Are these test results examples of quantitative or qualitative data? Explain.
- Describe a “limitation” for each of the following tests.
- Benedict’s Test -
- Grease Spot Test -
- True or False? When an Unknown Solution changes to a violet/black color during the iodine test, this constitutes a positive control . Explain your answer.
- Diabetes is a chronic disorder that results in an increased level of glucose in the bloodstream. It is caused by inadequate insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas that allows cells to use and store glucose. One symptom of diabetes is excess glucose in the urine (glycosuria). Which test performed in the lab today could be used to assay a person’s urine to indicate diabetes? Describe the results of that test that would indicate the person has diabetes.
References
Belwood, Jacqueline; Rogers, Brandy; and Christian, Jason, Foundations of Biology Lab Manual (Georgia Highlands College). “Lab 2: Organic Molecules,” (2019). Biological Sciences Open Textbooks . 18. CC-BY
https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/biology-textbooks/18
Natale, E. G., Laura Blinderman, &. Patrick. (2021, March 19). Book: Unfolding the Mystery of Life - Biology Lab Manual for Non-Science Majors (Genovesi, Blinderman & Natale). “Exercise 5: Biomolecules.” CC-BY Retrieved April 5, 2021, from https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/24114


4: Ethical Considerations in Technical Writing
- Define ethics.
- Explain what it means to be a professional of integrity.
- Demonstrate ethical writing responsibilities.
- Distinguish between ethical and legal responsibilities.
- Describe three approaches for examining the ethical nature of a decision.
The Importance of Ethical Responsibility
Safety, security, and confidentiality are foundational for establishing confidence with your audience. To build a relationship of trust, consumers rely on the reputation and identity an organization projects. When technical writers behave unethically, illegal, or immorally, all trust is lost. It is often difficult to regain it.
Should we care about ethics in our lives, in our professions, and/or in our technical writing? Your goal is to understand why the answer to these questions is yes . When you write an ethical document, consider the following:
- Responsibility
- Integrity
- Trust
- Transparency
- Justice
- Equity
- Regulations
- Citations
Ethical Writing: Setting a Firm Ethical Tone
Ethics consists of the individual standards of behavior you exhibit in your personal and professional lives. It establishes the levels of honesty, empathy, trustworthiness, and other virtues that identify your personal behavior and your public reputation.
In your personal life, ethics sets norms for the ways in which you interact with family, friends, and colleagues. Ethical acts are generally considered voluntary and personal—often based on our perception or position on what is right or what is wrong. In industry, each employee has a choice in making an ethical or unethical decision. Whenever you think about the behavior you expect of yourself in your personal life and as a professional, you are engaging in a philosophical dialogue with yourself to establish the standards of behavior you choose to uphold. That is your ethical position.
Professional Ethics
Your success in a professional setting entails more than simply earning money and promotions. It may also mean treating stakeholders--employees, customers, clients--with honesty and respect. It may come from the sense of pride you feel about engaging in honest practices, not just because the law or policy demands it, but because you demand it of yourself. Thus, professional ethics guides the conduct by which technical writers abide by laws, regulations, and policies. Professional ethics means respecting the rights of stakeholders and the communities in which they live. Professional ethics centers on principles of good conduct through civil, social, economical, environmental, and lawful actions.
To see an example of a professional ethical code or mission statement, visit Johnson & Johnson and read "Our Credo" written by former chair Robert Wood Johnson. (Note: This link was viable at the time of publication; it may be inoperable now.)
Forbes provides a list of companies recently deemed the most reputable companies for corporate responsibility in 2019 according to their standards and research. (Note: This link was viable at the time of publication; it may be inoperable now.)
In our professional lives, ethics guides our interactions. Professional ethics consist of businesses having a reputation of composing standards and displaying conduct that exemplifies civil and lawful actions that build trust, confidence, and goodwill.
Acting with Integrity
Integrity is unity between what we say and what we do. Being a professional of integrity means consistently striving to be the best person you can be in all your interactions with others. It means you practice what you do based upon reasoning, laws, morality, and justice.
Although ethics are an individual choice, in the professional world, ethical choices by employees often define the success of an organization. Some professions, such as engineering, journalism, and medicine have traditional codes of ethics. Essentially, a code of ethics is a commitment to treat with honesty and integrity customers, clients, employees, and others affiliated with a profession. The Hippocratic Oath, for example, is embraced by most professionals in health care today as an appropriate standard always owed to patients by physicians, nurses, and others in the field. This obligation traces its etymology to ancient Greece and the physician Hippocrates.
Social responsibility represents the interaction and collaboration with stakeholders to reflect the concerns of communities which an organization serves. Social responsibility includes:
- Practices that are inclusive and diverse
- Activities that help local communities and stakeholders
An example of an organization implementing social responsibility is Warby Parker. Executives at Warby Parker, an online prescription glasses retailer, displayed social responsibility by pledging $1 million to organizations and initiatives that focused on combating systemic racism. This outreach demonstrates that executives understand the importance of addressing inclusion and diversity.
"Work Ethic (1 of 2)" by Brett Jordan is licensed under CC BY 2.0
Legal responsibility represents practices that are in compliance with local, state, federal, and industry regulations and laws.
Many people conflate legal and ethical compliance. They are, however, totally different and call for different standards of behavior. What is legal isn't always ethical. The purpose of a law is to establish and maintain a functioning society. Compliance with these legal standards is strictly mandatory: If we violate these standards, we are subject to punishment. Therefore, compliance in terms of professional ethics generally refers to the extent by which an organization conducts its operations in accordance with applicable regulations, statutes, and laws. Yet this represents only a baseline minimum. Organizations today need to be focused not only on complying with the letter of the law but also on going above and beyond that basic mandatory requirement to consider ethical practices for their stakeholders and do what is right.
Ethical Writing Considerations
Aristotle and the Concept of Phronesis, or Practical Wisdom
Phrónēsis (fro-NEE-sis) is a type of practical wisdom that enables us to act virtuously. In “The Big Idea: The Wise Leader,” a Harvard Business Review article on leadership and ethical decision-making, Ikujiro Nonaka, a Japanese organizational theorist, and Hirotaka Takeuchi (2011), a professor of Management Practice at Harvard Business School, discuss the gap between the theory and practice of ethics and the characteristics that make a wise leader. The authors conclude that chief executive officers (CEOs) must incorporate practical wisdom by leading with values and morals. The concept of practical wisdom dates back to Aristotle, who considered phronesis, which can also be defined as prudence, to be a key intellectual virtue. Phronesis enables people to make ethically sound judgments. From a business writing perspective, effective writers:
- Provide details and explanations
- Include information that is pertinent to the topic
- Analyze content to determine its efficacy
- Provide introductions, overviews, and transitions
- Analyze content to envision the consequences of possible actions or responses
- Include information that reflects the concerns and feedback of stakeholders
- Compose content that is easy to read and follow
- Create a shared sense of purpose among the document, readers, and stakeholders and inspire people to work together in pursuit of a common goal
- Engage as many people as possible in conversation and communicate using an audience-centered approach
Plagiarizing is misrepresenting the source or facts, most commonly when you claim the ideas you are writing about are yours. When you are researching professional documents, make sure you are using material with permission. If you are writing about what you researched, make sure you are citing the sources of your information and giving credit to all the necessary researchers.
Attribution refers to acknowledging and recognizing the source of information used in writing, ideas, concepts, and creations. Depending on the creation, the attribution is valid in various forms.
This rule also extends beyond writing to what is referred to as intellectual property. Intellectual property includes the following:
Patents and t rademarks are c ompany names (WalMart), logos (the Target bullseye), processes or slogans (I’m lovin’ it) that belong to a person or company . None of these things can be used without proper recognition of or approval from the appropriate company or individual involved.
A company uses a ™ to show something is trademarked or an ® for something registered with the U.S Patent and Trademark Office. An example would be Nike ™ and their famous swoosh symbol .
The legal consequences are most notable when one considers writing in the professional world. While plagiarizing may give you a failing grade in a class, plagiarizing in the workplace can not only get you fired, but could result in a costly lawsuit or possibly even jail time. It is not only ethical to follow these rules, it is an enforced law. Make sure you properly document all sources so as not to mislead a reader.
Spend a few minutes viewing the following website for clarification on copyright, trademark, and registered trademark: United States Patent and Trademark Office
Copyright law includes items whose distribution is protected by law (books, movies, or software). The copyright symbol is shown with a ©. Copyright is different from plagiarism in that it is a legal issue. Only the copyright holder, the person/organization who owns the protected item, can copy it.
Any written document, once produced, is copyrighted by law. That means if you are borrowing a good idea from a friend at another company, you must cite them as a source. Also, it is a good idea to cite sources from inside your own company, as well. You wouldn’t want someone else taking credit for your ideas. Why should you treat others any differently?
A Professional Document is a Legal Document
Most documents written by employees represent the position and commitments of the organization itself. There are always legal issues to consider when writing a professional document and they reflect in writing style and content. Professional documents can serve as evidence in disputes over contracts and in product liability lawsuits. A lawsuit is a civil action brought in court. Today, the average company is involved in 400 lawsuits at any given time. While most companies win their lawsuits, being caught in a lawsuit has many consequences. Lawsuits cost companies time and money. The money spent on lawyers and the time spent in court takes away resources a company could use for improving business and products, or hiring additional employees. Lawsuits also have ramifications for a business’s reputation.
One of the main reasons a company gets involved in a lawsuit is because of unclear writing. When in a lawsuit, all documents may be subpoenaed. This means that any document from memos and emails to proposals and tweets can be subject to review by a court of law.
A Clear Writing Style
Ethical writing decisions include word selection, content, organization, and tone. There should be no clichés and idioms in documents because they may pose a problem with comprehension. A cliché is a worn-out or overused expression that tends to sound trite and often doesn’t express what you truly mean to say. Examples include: the bottom line is, head over heels, or take it or leave it . Idioms, also known as jargon, are words or expressions that are specialized, usually industry-specific vocabulary. When it is necessary to use jargon, be sure to explain its meaning to increase understandability by various audiences. Opinions and jokes should also be avoided in business documents. Inform and persuade your readers through facts and data instead of opinions and beliefs. (See Chapter 2 Technical Writing Style .)
Ethical Infractions in Professional Writing
You have learned what constitutes ethical behavior in professional writing. In addition to discussing what to do, it is also necessary to discuss ethical infractions to avoid to strengthen your ethical knowledge and writing.
An ethical infraction is a decision that results in an ethical and moral breach. In business, the following breaches pertain to business writing and communication.
| Infraction | Definition |
|---|---|
| Defamation |
Causing harm to one's reputation or character by communicating false and malicious information. |
| Libel | Causing harm to one's reputation or character by writing false and malicious information. |
| Slander | Causing harm to one's good name or character by speaking false and malicious information. |
|
Fraud |
Misrepresenting the truth for personal or professional gain. |
|
Invasion of privacy |
Intruding in the business records of employees or stakeholders. |
Confidentiality does not mean that employees should not reveal a company’s unethical behavior. Whistler Blower laws are in place to assist workers who report unethical business behavior.
Ethical Sins of Commission and Omission
Unethical actions are classified into two categories: Sins of commission and sins of omission.
Sins of commission refer to unethical actions that include manipulating or changing information to benefit a person or business a person represents. To avoid using misleading or manipulating words and phrases, it is important to be open to alternative viewpoints; conduct an audience analysis. In preparing any type of writing, you may come across conflicting viewpoints. Discussing several points of view and ideas on the subject will make you more persuasive and inclusive, resulting in the avoidance of sins of omission. In addition, be aware of biased language; make sure you have not included anything that may point to discriminatory assumptions or stereotypes.
Sins of omission refer to withholding or using inaccurate information in order to benefit a person or company a person represents. Do not use false or skewed facts or argue from such premises because you may deceive the reader(s) and cause them to make an uninformed decision.
Conclusion
Whatever hopes you have for your future, you almost certainly want to be successful in whatever career you choose. But what does success mean to you, and how will you know you have achieved it? Will you measure it in terms of wealth, status, power, or recognition?
Before blindly embarking on a quest to achieve these goals, which society considers important, stop and think about what a successful career means to you personally. Does it include a stellar reputation, colleagues whose good opinion you value, and the ability to think well of yourself? How might ethics guide your decision-making and contribute to your achievement of these goals? It is important to consider the answer to these questions before you are faced with a decision that you must make in the moment.
When you are faced with an ethical dilemma, answer these questions to assist you with determining your next steps:
- What is the nature of the ethical dilemma?
- What are the specific aspects of this dilemma that make you uncomfortable?
- What are your competing obligations in this dilemma?
- What advice does a trusted supervisor or mentor offer?
- Does your organization's code of conduct address this issue?
- Does your professional association’s code of conduct address this issue?
- What are you willing to do? What are you not willing to do?
- How will you explain or justify your decision?
"Ethical Decision Checklist:" by ENGL 145: Technical and Report Writing. Bay College. is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. https://www.oercommons.org/courses/b...t-writing/view . Kinonen, Amber, et. al. Federal Trade Commission. (2020, January 2020). Equifax Data Breach Settlement . https://www.ftc.gov/enforcement/case...ach-settlement Ikujiro Nonaka and Hirotaka Takeuchi, “The Big Idea: The Wise Leader,” Harvard Business Review , May 2011. https://hbr.org/2011/05/the-big-idea-the-wise-leader . This work "Ethical Considerations in Technical Writing" is derivative of “ Business Ethics ” by OpenStax , and “Ethical Considerations in Business Writing” by Valerie A. Gray , licensed under CC BY by Lise-Pauline Barnett, Tamara Girardi, and Mary Richards.