Why Attend Classes at All?
Among the student freedoms in college is the choice not to attend classes. Most college instructors do not “grade” attendance, and some college students soon develop an attitude that if you can get class notes from someone else, or watch a podcast of a lecture, there’s no reason to go to every class at all. What’s wrong with that?
It is in fact true that you don’t have to attend every single class of every course to get a good grade. But thinking only in terms of grades and how much one can get away with is a dangerous attitude toward college education. The real issue is whether you’re trying to get the most out of your education. Let’s compare students with different attitudes toward their classes:
Carla wants to get through college, and she knows she needs the degree to get a decent job, but she’s just not that into it. She’s never thought of herself as a good student, and that hasn’t changed much in college. She has trouble paying attention in those big lecture classes, which mostly seem pretty boring. She’s pretty sure she can pass all her courses, however, as long as she takes the time to study before tests. It doesn’t bother her to skip classes when she’s studying for a test in a different class or finishing a reading assignment she didn’t get around to earlier. She does make it through her freshman year with a passing grade in every class, even those she didn’t go to very often. Then she fails the midterm exam in her first sophomore class. Depressed, she skips the next couple classes, then feels guilty and goes to the next. It’s even harder to stay awake because now she has no idea what they’re talking about. It’s too late to drop the course, and even a hard night of studying before the final isn’t enough to pass the course. In two other classes, she just barely passes. She has no idea what classes to take next term and is starting to think that maybe she’ll drop out for now.
Karen wants to have a good time in college and still do well enough to get a good job in business afterward. Her sorority keeps a file of class notes for her big lecture classes, and from talking to others and reviewing these notes, she’s discovered she can skip almost half of those big classes and still get a B or C on the tests. She stays focused on her grades, and because she has a good memory, she’s able to maintain OK grades. She doesn’t worry about talking to her instructors outside of class because she can always find out what she needs from another student. In her sophomore year, she has a quick conversation with her academic advisor and chooses her major. Those classes are smaller, and she goes to most of them, but she feels she’s pretty much figured out how it works and can usually still get the grade. In her senior year, she starts working on her résumé and asks other students in her major which instructors write the best letters of recommendation. She’s sure her college degree will land her a good job.
Alicia enjoys her classes, even when she has to get up early after working or studying late the night before. She sometimes gets so excited by something she learns in class that she rushes up to the instructor after class to ask a question. In class discussions, she’s not usually the first to speak out, but by the time another student has given an opinion, she’s had time to organize her thoughts and enjoys arguing her ideas. Nearing the end of her sophomore year and unsure of what to major in given her many interests, she talks things over with one of her favorite instructors, whom she has gotten to know through office visits. The instructor gives her some insights into careers in that field and helps her explore her interests. She takes two more courses with this instructor over the next year, and she’s comfortable in her senior year going to him to ask for a job reference. When she does, she’s surprised and thrilled when he urges her to apply for a high-level paid internship with a company in the field—that happens to be run by a friend of his.
Think about the differences in the attitudes of these three students and how they approach their classes. One’s attitude toward learning, toward going to class, and toward the whole college experience is a huge factor in how successful a student will be. Make it your goal to attend every class—don’t even think about not going. Going to class is the first step in engaging in your education by interacting with the instructor and other students. Here are some reasons why it’s important to attend every class:
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Miss a class and you’ll miss
something
, even if you never know it. Even if a friend gives you notes for the class, they cannot contain
everything
said or shown by the instructor or written on the board for emphasis or questioned or commented on by other students. What you miss might affect your grade or your enthusiasm for the course. Why go to college at all if you’re not going to
go
to college?
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While some students may say that you don’t have to go to every class to do well on a test, that is very often a myth. Do you want to take that risk?
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Your final grade often reflects how you think about course concepts, and you will think more often and more clearly when engaged in class discussions and hearing the comments of other students. You can’t get this by borrowing class notes from a friend.
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Research shows there is a correlation between absences from class and lower grades. It may be that missing classes causes lower grades or that students with lower grades miss more classes. Either way, missing classes and lower grades can be intertwined in a downward spiral of achievement.
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Your instructor will note your absences—even in a large class. In addition to making a poor impression, you reduce your opportunities for future interactions. You might not ask a question the next class because of the potential embarrassment of the instructor saying that was covered in the last class, which you apparently missed. Nothing is more insulting to an instructor than when you skip a class and then show up to ask, “Did I miss anything important?”
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You might be tempted to skip a class because the instructor is “boring,” but it’s more likely that you found the class boring because you weren’t very attentive or didn’t appreciate how the instructor was teaching.
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You paid a lot of money for your tuition. Get your money’s worth!
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
In a small class, it’s easy to interact with the instructor.
Susan Sermoneta –
Flickr
[small group work at FIT]
– CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
If You Must Miss a Class…
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If you know that you will miss a class, take steps in advance. Tell your instructor and ask if he or she teaches another section of the course that you might attend instead. Ask about any handouts or special announcements.
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Ask another student whose judgment you trust if you can copy his or her notes. Then talk to them after you’ve read their notes to go over things that may be unclear to you.
-
It may not be necessary to see your instructor after missing a lecture class, and no instructor wants to give you fifty minutes of office time to repeat what was said in class. But if you are having difficulty after the
next
class because of something you missed earlier, stop and see your instructor and ask what you can do to get caught up. But remember the worst thing you can say to an instructor: “I missed class—did you talk about anything important?”
The Value of Interaction in Class
As noted earlier, there are many good reasons to attend every class. But it’s not enough just to
be
there—you need to interact with the the instructor and other students to enjoy a full educational experience:
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Participating in class discussions is a good way to start meeting other students with whom you share an interest. You may form a study group, borrow class notes if you miss a class, or team up with other students on a group project. You may meet students with whom you form a lasting relationship, developing your network of contacts for other benefits in the future, such as learning about internships or jobs.
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Asking the instructor questions, answering the instructor’s questions in class, and responding to other students’ comments is a good way to make an impression on your instructor. The instructor will remember you as an engaged student—and this matters if you later need extra help or even a potential mentor.
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Paying close attention and thinking critically about what an instructor is saying can dramatically improve your enjoyment of the class. You’ll notice things you’d miss if you’re feeling bored and may discover your instructor is much more interesting than you first thought.
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Students actively engaged in their class learn more and thus get better grades. When you speak out in class and answer the instructor’s questions, you are more likely to remember the discussion.
Attending the first day of class is especially critical. There you’ll get the syllabus and other handouts, learn the instructor’s policies and preferences for how the class will function, and often take notes in an opening lecture.
Are Podcasts and Recordings an Effective Alternative to Attending Class?
Why not just listen to a recording of the lecture—or a video podcast, if available—instead of going to class?  What could be wrong with that?
This issue has received considerable discussion in recent years because many colleges and universities began videotaping class lectures and making them available for students online or in podcasts. There was a lot of debate about whether students would stop coming to class and simply watch the podcasts instead. In fact, some students do cut class, as some always have, but most students use podcasts and recordings as a way to review material they do not feel they grasp completely. A video podcast doesn’t offer the opportunity to ask questions or participate, and even if you pay close attention to watching a video, it’s still a passive experience from which you’re likely to learn much less.
Health Science classes
Embarking on a journey through nursing school is both an exciting and challenging endeavor. Nursing programs are known for their rigor, requiring a deep commitment and a strong work ethic. The coursework is intense, often involving complex material that demands a high level of understanding and application. Students will encounter detailed studies of human anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, and pathology, among other subjects. Each class builds upon the last, requiring students to retain and integrate knowledge continuously. This cumulative learning process is essential for developing the critical thinking and clinical judgment skills necessary for effective nursing practice.
The variety of schedules in nursing programs can be daunting. Unlike many traditional college courses, nursing classes often include a mix of lectures, laboratory work, and clinical rotations. Clinical rotations are a key component, providing hands-on experience in healthcare settings under the supervision of experienced nurses and instructors. These rotations can occur during weekdays, evenings, and even weekends, necessitating flexibility and time management from students. Balancing these diverse schedules with personal responsibilities can be challenging, but it is a crucial aspect of the nursing education experience.
Nursing coursework differs significantly from regular college classes in its focus on practical, real-world applications. While theoretical knowledge is important, nursing education places a strong emphasis on skills and competencies required in clinical settings. Students are trained not only to understand the science behind healthcare but also to apply this knowledge in patient care scenarios. This includes learning to perform clinical procedures, communicate effectively with patients and colleagues, and make quick, informed decisions in high-pressure situations. The integration of classroom learning with clinical practice ensures that nursing students are well-prepared to meet the demands of their future profession.
Furthermore, nursing programs often incorporate interprofessional education, where students learn to collaborate with peers from other healthcare disciplines. This teamwork fosters a holistic approach to patient care and highlights the importance of communication and cooperation in healthcare settings. As a result, nursing students must develop strong interpersonal skills alongside their clinical expertise. The combination of rigorous academic work, diverse schedules, and the unique demands of nursing coursework makes nursing school a challenging but immensely rewarding path for those committed to making a difference in the lives of others.
Key Takeaways
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The benefits of attending every class include not missing important material, thinking more clearly about course topics, developing a better relationship with the instructor, and being better prepared for tests.
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When possible, prepare in advance for missing a class by speaking with your instructor and arranging to borrow and discuss someone’s notes.
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Students benefit in many ways from class interaction, including more actively engaging in learning, developing a network with other students, and forming a relationship with the instructor.
-
Podcasts, lecture recordings, and similar learning methods can supplement lectures but cannot replace all the benefits of attending class in person.
Checkpoint Exercises
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Why is it more important to interact with your instructors in college than it was in high school?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Give an example of something important you may miss in a class from which you are absent—even if you read a friend’s notes and hear a recording of the lecture.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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List at least three potential benefits of forming a network with other students.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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What can you do as a student to be more engaged during a lecture if you are finding it boring?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________


16.2: Organizational Structures and Design
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- Last updated
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- What are mechanistic versus organic organizational structures?
First, an organizational structure is a system for accomplishing and connecting the activities that occur within a work organization. People rely on structures to know what work they should do, how their work supports or relies on other employees, and how these work activities fulfill the purpose of the organization itself.
Second, organizational design is the process of setting up organizational structures to address the needs of an organization and account for the complexity involved in accomplishing business objectives.
Next, organizational change refers to the constant shifts that occur within an organizational system—for example, as people enter or leave the organization, market conditions shift, supply sources change, or adaptations are introduced in the processes for accomplishing work. Through managed change , leaders in an organization can intentionally shape how these shifts occur over time.
Finally, organizational development (OD) is the label for a field that specializes in change management. OD specialists draw on social science to guide change processes that simultaneously help a business achieve its objectives while generating well-being for employees and sustainable benefits for society. An understanding of OD practices is essential for leaders who want to maximize the potential of their organizations over a long period of time.
Together, an understanding of these concepts can help managers know how to create and direct organizations that are positioned to successfully accomplish strategic goals and objectives.
To understand the role of organizational structure, consider the experience of Justin, a young manager who worked for a logistics and transportation company. His success at leading change in the United States gave his leaders the confidence that he could handle a challenging assignment: organize a new supply chain and distribution system for a company in Northern Europe. Almost overnight, Justin was responsible for hiring competent people, forming them into a coherent organization, training them, and establishing the needed infrastructure for sustained success in this new market.
If you were given this assignment, what would you do? How would you organize your employees? How would you help them understand the challenge of setting up a new organization and system? These are the kinds of questions that require an understanding of organizational structure, organizational design, organizational change, and organizational development.
One of the first issues Justin will need to address deals with how he will organize the system he will manage. “The decisions about the structure of an organization are all related to the concept of organizational design. There are two fundamental forms of structure to remember when designing an organization.
To address these questions, we need to be familiar with two fundamental ways of building an organization.
The formal organization is an officially defined set of relationships, responsibilities, and connections that exist across an organization. The traditional organizational chart, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), is perhaps the most common way of depicting the formal organization. The typical organization has a hierarchical form with clearly defined roles and responsibilities.
When Justin sets up his formal organization, he will need to design the administrative responsibilities and communication structures that should function within an organizational system. The formal systems describe how flow of information and resources should occur within an organization. To establish the formal organization, he will identify the essential functions that need to be part of the system, and he will hire people to fill these functions. He will then need to help employees learn their functions and how these functions should relate to one another.
The informal organization is sometimes referred to as the invisible network of interpersonal relationships that shape how people actually connect with one another to carry out their activities. The informal organization is emergent, meaning that it is formed through the common conversations and relationships that often naturally occur as people interact with one another in their day-to-day relationships. It is usually complex, impossible to control, and has the potential to significantly influence an organization’s success.
As depicted in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\), the informal organization can also be mapped, but it is usually very different than the formal organization. The chart you see in this example is called a network map, because it depicts the relationships that exist between different members of a system. Some members are more central than others, and the strength of relationships may vary between any two pairs or groups of individuals. These relationships are constantly in flux, as people interact with new individuals, current relationships evolve, and the organization itself changes over time.
The informal organization in Justin’s design will form as people begin interacting with one another to accomplish their work. As this occurs, people will begin connecting with one another as they make sense of their new roles and relationships. Usually, the informal organization closely mirrors the formal organization, but often it is different. People quickly learn who the key influencers are within the system, and they will begin to rely on these individuals to accomplish the work of the organization. The informal organization can either help or hinder an organization’s overall success.
In sum, the formal organization explains how an organization should function, while the informal organization is how the organizational actually functions. Formal organization will come as Justin hires and assigns people to different roles. He can influence the shape of the informal organization by giving people opportunities to build relationships as they work together. Both types of structures shape the patterns of influence, administration, and leadership that may occur through an organizational system.
As we continue our discussion of structure and design, we will next examine different ways of understanding formal structure.
Types of Formal Organizational Structures
Now, Justin will need to choose and implement an administrative system for delegating duties, establishing oversight, and reporting on performance. He will do this by designing a formal structure that defines the responsibilities and accountability that correspond to specific duties throughout an organizational system. In this section, we’ll discuss the factors that any manager should consider when designing an organizational structure.
Bureaucracy
One of the most common frameworks for thinking about these issues is called the bureaucratic model . It was developed by Max Weber, a 19 th -century sociologist. Weber’s central assumption was that organizations will find efficiencies when they divide the duties of labor, allow people to specialize, and create structure for coordinating their differentiated efforts, usually within a hierarchy of responsibility. He proposed five elements of bureaucracy that serve as a foundation for determining an appropriate structure: specialization, command-and-control, span of control, centralization, and formalization.
Specialization
The degree to which people are organized into subunits according to their expertise is referred to as specialization —for example, human resources, finance, marketing, or manufacturing. It may also include specialization within those functions. For instance, people who work in a manufacturing facility may be well-versed in every part of a manufacturing process, or they may be organized into specialty units that focus on different parts of the manufacturing process, such as procurement, material preparation, assembly, quality control, and the like.
Command-and-Control
The next element to consider is the reporting and oversight structure of the organization. Command-and-control refers to the way in which people report to one another or connect to coordinate their efforts in accomplishing the work of the organization.
Span of Control
Another question addresses the scope of the work that any one person in the organization will be accountable for, referred to as span of control . For instance, top-level leaders are usually responsible for all of the work of their subordinates, mid-level leaders are responsible for a narrower set of responsibilities, and ground-level employees usually perform very specific tasks. Each manager in a hierarchy works within the span of control of another manager at a level of the organization.
Centralization
The next element to consider is how to manage the flows of resources and information in an organization, or its centralization . A highly centralized organization concentrates resources in only one or very few locations, or only a few individuals are authorized to make decisions about the use of resources. In contrast, a diffuse organization distributes resources more broadly throughout an organizational system along with the authority to make decisions about how to use those resources.
Formalization
The last element of bureaucracy, formalization , refers to the degree of definition in the roles that exist throughout an organization. A highly formalized system (e.g., the military) has a very defined organization, a tightly structured system, in which all of the jobs, responsibilities, and accountability structures are very clearly understood. In contrast, a loosely structured system (e.g., a small, volunteer nonprofit) relies heavily on the emergent relationships of informal organization.
Mechanistic and Organic Structures
Using the principles of bureaucracy outlined above, managers like Justin have experimented with many different structures as way to shape the formal organization and potentially to capture some of the advantages of the informal organization. Generally, the application of these principles leads to some combination of the two kinds of structures that can be seen as anchors on a continuum (see Table \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
| Elements of Organizational Structure and Their Relationship to Mechanistic and Organic Forms | ||
|---|---|---|
| Mechanistic | Organic | |
| Highly formalized | Standardization | Low |
| High/Narrow | Specialization | Low/Broad |
| Centralized | Centralization | Decentralized |
| Functional | Departmentalization | Divisional |
On one end of the continuum is mechanistic bureaucratic structure . This is a strongly hierarchical form of organizing that is designed to generate a high degree of standardization and control. Mechanistic organizations are often characterized by a highly vertical organizational structure, or a “tall” structure, due to the presence of many levels of management. A mechanistic structure tends to dictate roles and procedure through strong routines and standard operating practices.
In contrast, an organic bureaucratic structure relies on the ability of people to self-organize and make decisions without much direction such that they can adapt quickly to changing circumstances. In an organic organization, it is common to see a horizontal organizational structure , in which many individuals across the whole system are empowered to make organizational decision. An organization with a horizontal structure is also known as a flat organization because it often features only a few levels of organizational hierarchy.
The principles of bureaucracy outlined earlier can be applied in different ways, depending on the context of the organization and the managers’ objectives, to create structures that have features of either mechanistic or organic structures.
For example, the degree of specialization required in an organization depends both on the complexity of the activities the organization needs to account for and on the scale of the organization. A more organic organization may encourage employees to be both specialists and generalists so that they are more aware of opportunities for innovation within a system. A mechanistic organization may emphasize a strong degree of specialization so that essential procedures or practices are carried out with consistency and predictable precision. Thus, an organization’s overall objectives drive how specialization should be viewed. For example, an organization that produces innovation needs to be more organic, while an organization that seeks reliability needs to be more mechanistic.
Similarly, the need for a strong environment of command-and-control varies by the circumstances of each organization. An organization that has a strong command-and-control system usually requires a vertical, tall organizational administrative structure. Organizations that exist in loosely defined or ambiguous environments need to distribute decision-making authority to employees, and thus will often feature a flat organizational structure.
The span of control assigned to any specific manager is commonly used to encourage either mechanistic or organic bureaucracy. Any manager’s ability to attend to responsibilities has limits; indeed, the amount of work anyone can accomplish is finite. A manager in an organic structure usually has a broad span of control, forcing her to rely more on subordinates to make decisions. A manager in a mechanistic structure usually has a narrow span of control so that she can provide more oversight. Thus, increasing span of control for a manager tends to flatten the hierarchy while narrowing span of control tends to reinforce the hierarchy.
Centralization addresses assumptions about how an organization can best achieve efficiencies in its operations. In a mechanistic structure, it is assumed that efficiencies will occur in the system if the resources and decisions flow through in a centralized way. In an organic system, it is assumed that greater efficiencies will be seen by distributing those resources and having the resources sorted by the users of the resources. Either perspective may work, depending on the circumstances.
Finally, managers also have discretion in how tightly they choose to define the formal roles and responsibilities of individuals within an organization. Managers who want to encourage organic bureaucracy will resist the idea of writing out and tightly defining roles and responsibilities. They will encourage and empower employees to self-organize and define for themselves the roles they wish to fill. In contrast, managers who wish to encourage more mechanistic bureaucracy will use tools such as standard operating procedures (SOPs) or written policies to set expectations and exercise clear controls around those expectations for employees.
When a bureaucratic structure works well, an organization achieves an appropriate balance across all of these considerations. Employees specialize in and become highly advanced in their ability to perform specific functions while also attending to broader organizational needs. They receive sufficient guidance from managers to stay aligned with overall organizational goals. The span of control given to any one manager encourages them to provide appropriate oversight while also relying on employees to do their part. The resources and decision-making necessary to accomplish the goals of the organization are efficiently managed. There is an appropriate balance between compliance with formal policy and innovative action.
Functional Structures
Aside from the considerations outlined above, organizations will often set structures according to the functional needs of the organization. A functional need refers to a feature of the organization or its environment that is necessary for organizational success. A functional structure is designed to address these organizational needs. There are two common examples of functional structures illustrated here.
Product structures exist where the business organizes its employees according to product lines or lines of business. For example, employees in a car company might be organized according to the model of the vehicle that they help to support or produce. Employees in a consulting firm might be organized around a particular kind of practice that they work in or support. Where a functional structure exists, employees become highly attuned to their own line of business or their own product.
Geographic structures exist where organizations are set up to deliver a range of products within a geographic area or region. Here, the business is set up based on a territory or region. Managers of a particular unit oversee all of the operations of the business for that geographical area.
In either functional structure, the manager will oversee all the activities that correspond to that function: marketing, manufacturing, delivery, client support systems, and so forth. In some ways, a functional structure is like a smaller version of the larger organization—a smaller version of the bureaucracy that exists within the larger organization.
One common weakness of a bureaucratic structure is that people can become so focused on their own part of the organization that they fail to understand or connect with broader organizational activities. In the extreme, bureaucracy separates and alienates workers from one another. These problems can occur when different parts of an organization fail to communicate effectively with one another.
Some organizations set up a matrix structure to minimize the potential for these problems. A matrix structure describes an organization that has multiple reporting lines of authority. For example, an employee who specializes in a particular product might have both the functional reporting line and a geographic reporting line. This employee has accountability in both directions. The functional responsibility has to do with her specialty as it correlates with the strategy of the company as a whole. However, her geographic accountability is to the manager who is responsible for the region or part of the organization in which she is currently working. The challenge is that an employee may be accountable to two or more managers, and this can create conflict if those managers are not aligned. The potential benefit, however, is that employees may be more inclined to pay attention to the needs of multiple parts of the business simultaneously.
concept check
- What are different types of organizational structures?
- What concepts should guide decisions about how to design structures?


3.1: Solving Systems with Algebra
Learning Objectives
In this section, you will learn to:
- Determine if a given ordered pair is a solution to a system of equations.
- Solve a system of linear equations in two variables by graphing, substitution, and elimination by addition.
- Find the equilibrium point when a demand and a supply equation are given.
- Find the break-even point when the revenue and the cost functions are given.
Prerequisite Skills
Before you get started, take this prerequisite quiz.
1. Graph the function \(y=3x-4\).
- Click here to check your answer
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If you missed this problem, review Section 1.2 . (Note that this will open in a new window.)
2. Graph the function \(3x-2y=12\).
- Click here to check your answer
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If you missed this problem, review Section 1.2 . (Note that this will open in a new window.)
3. Is \((2, 5)\) a solution to \(x-5y=2\)?
- Click here to check your answer
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No, because \(-23 \neq 2\).
If you missed this problem, review Section 1.1 . (Note that this will open in a new window.)
A skateboard manufacturer introduces a new line of boards. The manufacturer tracks its costs, which is the amount it spends to produce the boards, and its revenue, which is the amount it earns through sales of its boards. How can the company determine if it is making a profit with its new line? How many skateboards must be produced and sold before a profit is possible? In this section, we will consider linear equations with two variables to answer these and similar questions.
Solving Systems of Linear Equations
In order to investigate situations such as that of the skateboard manufacturer, we need to recognize that we are dealing with more than one variable and likely more than one equation. A system of linear equations consists of two or more linear equations made up of two or more variables such that all equations in the system are considered simultaneously.
To find the unique solution to a system of linear equations, we must find a numerical value for each variable in the system that will satisfy all equations in the system at the same time. Some linear systems may not have a solution and others may have an infinite number of solutions. In order for a linear system to have a unique solution, there must be at least as many equations as there are variables. Even so, this does not guarantee a unique solution.
In this section, we will look at systems of linear equations in two variables, which consist of two equations that contain two different variables. For example, consider the following system of linear equations in two variables.
\[\begin{align*} 2x+y &= 15 \\ 3x–y &= 5 \end{align*}\]
The solution to a system of linear equations in two variables is any ordered pair that satisfies each equation independently. In this example, the ordered pair \((4,7)\) is the solution to the system of linear equations. We can verify the solution by substituting the values into each equation to see if the ordered pair satisfies both equations. Shortly we will investigate methods of finding such a solution if it exists.
\[\begin{align*} 2(4)+(7) &=15 \text{ True} \\ 3(4)−(7) &= 5 \text{ True} \end{align*}\]
Given a system of linear equations and an ordered pair, determine whether the ordered pair is a solution
- Substitute the ordered pair into each equation in the system.
- Determine whether true statements result from the substitution in both equations; if so, the ordered pair is a solution.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Determining Whether an Ordered Pair Is a Solution to a System of Equations
Determine whether the ordered pair \((5,1)\) is a solution to the given system of equations.
\[\begin{align*} x+3y &= 8 \\ 2x−9 &= y \end{align*}\]
Solution
Substitute the ordered pair \((5,1)\) into both equations.
\[ \begin{align*} (5)+3(1) &= 8 \\ 8 &= 8 \text{ True} \\ 2(5)−9 &= (1) \\ 1 &= 1 \text{ True} \end{align*}\]
The ordered pair \((5,1)\) satisfies both equations, so it is is the solution to the system.
Analysis
We can see the solution clearly by plotting the graph of each equation. Since the solution is an ordered pair that satisfies both equations, it is a point on both of the lines and thus the point of intersection of the two lines. See Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Determine whether the ordered pair \((8,5)\) is a solution to the following system.
\[\begin{align*} 5x−4y &= 20 \\ 2x+1 &= 3y \end{align*}\]
- Answer
-
Not a solution.
Generally, we aren't given the coordinates of a possible solution. Instead, we need to find it. There are three main methods for finding a solution to a system of equations: graphing, substitution, and elimination by addition.
Solving Systems of Equations by Graphing
There are multiple methods of solving systems of linear equations. For a system of linear equations in two variables, we can determine both the type of system and the solution by graphing the system of equations on the same set of axes.
How to: Given a system of two equations in two variables, solve using the graphing method.
- Carefully and accurately graph each equation on the same set of axes.
- Identify the point at which the lines intersect.
- Check the solution in both equations.
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\): Solving a System of Equations in Two Variables by Graphing
Solve the following system of equations by graphing.
\[\begin{align*} 2x+y &= −8 \\ x−y &= −1 \end{align*}\]
Solution
Solve the first equation for \(y\).
\[\begin{align*} 2x+y &= −8 \\ y &= −2x−8 \end{align*}\]
Solve the same equation for \(y\).
\[\begin{align*} x−y &= −1 \\ &= x+1 \end{align*}\]
Graph both equations on the same set of axes as in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\).
The lines appear to intersect at the point \((−3,−2)\). We can check to make sure that this is the solution to the system by substituting the ordered pair into both equations.
\[\begin{align*} 2(−3)+(−2) &= −8 \\ −8 −8 \text{ True} \\ (−3)−(−2) &= −1 \\ −1 &= −1 \text{ True} \end{align*}\]
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Solve the following system of equations by graphing.
\[\begin{align*} 2x−5y &= −25 \\ −4x+5y &= 35 \end{align*}\]
- Answer
-
The solution to the system is the ordered pair \((−5,3)\).
Solving Systems of Equations by Substitution
Solving a linear system in two variables by graphing works well when the solution consists of integer values, but if our solution contains decimals or fractions, it is not the most precise method. We will consider two more methods of solving a system of linear equations that are more precise than graphing. One such method method is solving a system of equations by the substitution method , in which we solve one of the equations for one variable and then substitute the result into the second equation to solve for the second variable. Recall that we can solve for only one variable at a time, which is the reason the substitution method is both valuable and practical.
How to: Given a system of two equations in two variables, solve using the substitution method.
- Solve one of the two equations for one of the variables in terms of the other.
- Substitute the expression for this variable into the other equation, then solve for the remaining variable.
- Substitute that solution into either of the original equations to find the value of the first variable. If possible, write the solution as an ordered pair.
- Check the solution in both equations.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\): Solving a System of Equations in Two Variables by Substitution
Solve the following system of equations by substitution.
\[\begin{align*} −x+y &= −5 \\ 2x−5y &= 1 \end{align*}\]
Solution
First, we will solve the first equation for \(y\).
\[\begin{align*} −x+y &=−5 \\ y &= x−5 \end{align*}\]
Now we can substitute the expression \(x−5\) for \(y\) in the second equation.
\[\begin{align*} 2x−5y &= 1 \\ 2x−5(x−5) &= 1 \\ 2x−5x+25 &= 1 \\ −3x &= −24 \\ x &= 8 \end{align*}\]
Now, we substitute \(x=8\) into the first equation and solve for \(y\).
\[\begin{align*} −(8)+y &= −5 \\ y &= 3 \end{align*}\]
Our solution is \((8,3)\).
Check the solution by substituting \((8,3)\) into both equations.
\[\begin{align*} −x+y &= −5 \\ −(8)+(3) &= −5 \text{ True} \\ 2x−5y &= 1 \\ 2(8)−5(3) &= 1 \text{ True} \end{align*}\]
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Solve the following following system of equations by substitution.
\[\begin{align*} x &= y+3 \\ 4 &= 3x−2y \end{align*}\]
- Answer
-
\((−2,−5)\)
Solving Systems of Equations in Two Variables by the Elimination by Addition Method
A third method of solving systems of linear equations is the Addition by addition method of solving systems of linear equations is the addition method. In this method, we add two terms with the same variable, but opposite coefficients, so that the sum is zero. Of course, not all systems are set up with the two terms of one variable having opposite coefficients. Often we must adjust one or both of the equations by multiplication so that one variable will be eliminated by addition.
How to: Given a system of equations, solve using the elimination by addition method.
- Write both equations with x - and y -variables on the left side of the equal sign and constants on the right. Write one equation above the other, lining up corresponding variables.
- If one of the variables in the top equation has the opposite coefficient of the same variable in the bottom equation, add the equations together, eliminating one variable. If not, use multiplication by a nonzero number so that one of the variables in the top equation has the opposite coefficient of the same variable in the bottom equation, then add the equations to eliminate the variable.
- Solve the resulting equation for the remaining variable.
- Substitute that value into one of the original equations and solve for the second variable.
- Check the solution by substituting the values into the other equation.
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\): Solving a System by the Elimination by Addition Method
Solve the given system of equations by elimination by addition.
\[\begin{align*} x+2y &= −1 \\ −x+y &=3 \end{align*}\]
Solution
Both equations are already set equal to a constant. Notice that the coefficient of \(x\) in the second equation, \(–1\), is the opposite of the coefficient of \(x\) in the first equation, \(1\). We can add the two equations to eliminate \(x\) without needing to multiply by a constant.
\[\begin{align*} x+2y &= -1 \\ \underline{-x+y}& = \underline{3} \\ 3y&= 2 \\ \end{align*}\]
Now that we have eliminated \(x\), we can solve the resulting equation for \(y\).
\[\begin{align*} 3y &= 2 \\ y &=\dfrac{2}{3} \end{align*}\]
Then, we substitute this value for \(y\) into one of the original equations and solve for \(x\).
\[\begin{align*} −x+y &= 3 \\ −x+\dfrac{2}{3} &= 3 \\ −x &= 3−\dfrac{2}{3} \\ −x &= \dfrac{7}{3} \\ x &= −\dfrac{7}{3} \end{align*}\]
The solution to this system is \(\left(−\dfrac{7}{3},\dfrac{2}{3}\right)\).
Check the solution in the first equation.
\[\begin{align*} x+2y &= −1 \\ \left(−\dfrac{7}{3}\right)+2\left(\dfrac{2}{3}\right) &= -1\\ −\dfrac{7}{3}+\dfrac{4}{3} &= -1\\ −\dfrac{3}{3} &= −1\\ -1 &= −1 \;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; \text{True} \end{align*}\]
Analysis
We gain an important perspective on systems of equations by looking at the graphical representation. See Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) to find that the equations intersect at the solution. We do not need to ask whether there may be a second solution because observing the graph confirms that the system has exactly one solution.
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\): Using the Elimination by Addition Method When Multiplication of One Equation Is Required
Solve the given system of equations by the elimination by addition method.
\[\begin{align*} 3x+5y &= −11 \\ x−2y &= 11 \end{align*}\]
Solution
Adding these equations as presented will not eliminate a variable. However, we see that the first equation has \(3x\) in it and the second equation has \(x\). So if we multiply the second equation has \(x\). So if we multiply the second equation by \(−3\),the x -terms will add to zero.
\[\begin{align*} x−2y &= 11 \\ −3(x−2y) &=−3(11) \;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; \text{Multiply both sides by }−3. \\ −3x+6y &= −33 \;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; \text{Use the distributive property.} \end{align*}\]
Now, let’s add them.
\[\begin{align*} 3x+5y &= -11 \\ \underline{-3x+6y }& = \underline{-33} \\ 11y&= -44 \\ y&= -4 \end{align*}\]
For the last step, we substitute \(y=−4\) into one of the original equations and solve for \(x\).
\[\begin{align*} 3x+5y &= −11 \\ 3x+5(−4) &= −11 \\ 3x−20 &= −11 \\ 3x &= 9 \\ x &= 3 \end{align*}\]
Our solution is the ordered pair \((3,−4)\). See Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\). Check the solution in the original second equation.
\[\begin{align*} x−2y &= 11 \\ (3)−2(−4) &= 3+8 \\ &= 11 \;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\; \text{True} \end{align*}\]
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Solve the system of equations by elimination by addition.
\[\begin{align*} 2x−7y &= 2 \\ 3x+y &= −20 \end{align*}\]
- Answer
-
\((−6,−2)\)
Example \(\PageIndex{6}\): Using the Elimination by Addition Method When Multiplication of Both Equations Is Required
Solve the given system of equations in two variables by elimination by addition.
\[\begin{align*} 2x+3y &= −16 \\ 5x−10y &= 30 \end{align*}\]
Solution
One equation has \(2x\) and the other has \(5x\). The least common multiple is \(10x\) so we will have to multiply both equations by a constant in order to eliminate one variable. Let’s eliminate \(x\) by multiplying the first equation by \(−5\) and the second equation by \(2\).
\[\begin{align*} −5(2x+3y) &= −5(−16) \\ −10x−15y &= 80 \\ 2(5x−10y) &= 2(30) \\ 10x−20y &= 60 \end{align*}\]
Then, we add the two equations together.
\[\begin{align*} -10x-15y &= 80 \\ \underline{10x-20y}& = \underline{60} \\ -35y&= 140 \\ y&= -4 \end{align*}\]
Substitute \(y=−4\) into the original first equation.
\[ \begin{align*} 2x+3(−4) &=−16 \\ 2x−12 &= −16 \\ 2x &= −4 \\ x &=−2 \end{align*}\]
The solution is \((−2,−4)\). Check it in the other equation.
\[\begin{align*} 5x−10y &= 30 \\ 5(−2)−10(−4) &= 30 \\ −10+40 &= 30 \\30 &=30 \end{align*}\]
See Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\).
SUPPLY, DEMAND AND THE EQUILIBRIUM MARKET PRICE
In a free market economy the supply curve for a commodity is the number of items of a product that can be made available at different prices, and the demand curve is the number of items the consumer will buy at different prices.
As the price of a product increases, its demand decreases and supply increases. On the other hand, as the price decreases the demand increases and supply decreases. The equilibrium price is reached when the demand equals the supply.
Example \(\PageIndex{7}\)
The supply curve for a product is \(y = 3.5x - 14\) and the demand curve for the same product is \(y = - 2.5x + 34\), where x is the price and y the number of items produced. Find the following.
- How many items will be supplied at a price of $10?
- How many items will be demanded at a price of $10?
- Determine the equilibrium price.
- How many items will be produced at the equilibrium price?
Solution
a) We substitute \(x = 10\) in the supply equation, \(y = 3.5x - 14\); the answer is \(y = 3.5(10) - 14 =21\).
b) We substitute \(x = 10\) in the demand equation, \(y = - 2.5x + 34\); the answer is \(y = - 2.5(10) + 34= 9\).
c) By letting the supply equal the demand, we get
\begin{aligned}
3.5x-140 &=-25x+340 \\
6x &=480 \\
x &=\$80
\end{aligned}
d) We substitute \(x = 8\) in either the supply or the demand equation; we get \(y = 14\).
The graph shows the intersection of the supply and the demand functions and their point of intersection, (8,14).
Interpretation: At equilibrium, the price is $8 per item, and 14 items are produced by suppliers and purchased by consumers.
Using Systems of Equations to Investigate Profits
Using what we have learned about systems of equations, we can return to the skateboard manufacturing problem at the beginning of the section. The skateboard manufacturer’s revenue function is the function used to calculate the amount the amount of money that comes into the business. It can be represented by the equation \(R=xp\), where \(x\)=quantity and \(p\)=price. The revenue function is shown in orange in Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\).
The cost function is the function used to calculate the costs of doing business. It includes fixed costs, such as rent and salaries, and variable costs, such as utilities. The cost function is shown in blue in Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\). The \(x\)-axis represents quantity in hundreds of units. The \(y\)-axis represents either cost or revenue in hundreds of dollars.
The point at which the two lines intersect is called the break-even point. We can see from the graph that if \(700\) units are produced, the cost is \($3,300\) and the revenue is also \($3,300\). In other words, the company breaks even if they produce and sell \(700\) units. They neither make money nor lose money.
The shaded region to the right of the break-even point represents quantities for which the company makes a profit. The shaded region to shaded region to the left represents quantities for which the company suffers a loss. The profit function is the revenue function minus the cost function, written as \(P(x)=R(x)−C(x)\). Clearly, knowing the quantity for which the cost equals the revenue is of great importance to businesses.
Example \(\PageIndex{8}\): Finding the Break-Even Point and the Profit Function Using Substitution
Given the cost function \(C(x)=0.85x+35,000\) and the revenue function function \(R(x)=1.55x\), find the break-even point and the profit function.
Solution
Write the system of equations using \(y\) to replace function notation.
\[\begin{align*} y &= 0.85x+35,000 \\ y &= 1.55x \end{align*}\]
Substitute the expression \(0.85x+35,000\) from the first equation into the second equation and solve for \(x\).
\[\begin{align*} 0.85x+35,000 &= 1.55x \\ 35,000 &= 0.7x \\ 50,000 &= x \end{align*}\]
Then, we substitute \(x=50,000\) into either the cost function or or the revenue function.
\(1.55(50,000)=77,500\)
The break-even is \((50,000,77,500)\).
The profit function is found using is formula formula \(P(x)=R(x)−C(x)\).
\[\begin{align*} P(x) &= 1.55x−(0.85x+35,000) \\ &=0.7x−35,000 \end{align*}\]
The profit function is \(P(x)=0.7x−35,000\).
Analysis
The cost to produce \(50,000\) units is \($77,500\), and the revenue from the sales of \(50,000\) units is also \($77,500\). To make a profit, the business must produce and sell more than \(50,000\) units. See Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\).
We see from the graph in Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\) that the profit function has a negative value until \(x=50,000\), when the graph crosses the \(x\)-axis. Then, the graph emerges into positive \(y\)-values and continues on this path as the profit function is a straight line. This illustrates that function is a straight line. This illustrates that the break-even point for businesses occurs when for businesses occurs when the profit function is \(0\). The area to the left of the break-even point represents operating at a loss.


1.3: References
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- SUNY Oneonta via LumenLearning
All Business Templates. (2019). Sample Resume for Teacher without Experience. Retrieved from: https://www.allbusinesstemplates.com/template/LH9B9/sample-resume-for-teacher-without-experience/ on March 19, 2019.
IdentiGo. (2019) New York Dept of Education – Certification. Retrieved from: https://uenroll.identogo.com/workflows/14ZGQT on March 19, 2019.
Masters in Education: Advancing the Skills of Educators. (2019) Professional Teacher Organizations. Retrieved from: http://www.masters-education.com/professional-teacher-organizations/ on March 19, 2019
New York State Education Department (NYSEG). (2019). Home Page. Retrieved from: http://www.nysed.gov/ on March 19, 2019
Northland College Career Education Center. (nd). Resume Guide for Education Majors. Retrieved from: https://my.northland.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/07/Education-Majors-Resume-Guide.pdf on March 19, 2019.
Office of Education Advisement and Field Experience. (2019). Fingerprinting Information. Retrieved from: suny.oneonta.edu/office-education-advisement-and-field-experience/teacher-certification/fingerprinting-information on March 19, 2019.
SUNY Oneonta Career Development Center. (2019). Application Materials: Resume Tips. Retrieved from: https://suny.oneonta.edu/career-development-center/prepare-employment/application-materials on March 19, 2019.
TEACH Online Services. (2019). NYSED.gov. Retrieved from: http://www.highered.nysed.gov/tcert/teach/ on March 19, 2019
Contributors and Attributions
- Foundations of Education. Authored by : SUNY Oneonta Education Department. License : CC BY: Attribution


1.8.7: Nutrition Facts Label
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Ingredient list
The last item on the food label is the ingredient list. Looking at the ingredients is a helpful tool for understanding what is in the food you are eating. It is important to know that the ingredients are listed in descending order, so the first items on the ingredient list are the ones in the highest amount in the food. For example, if you see sugar listed as one of the first items it likely means that it is a high sugar food. If you are looking to consume more whole grains, look for whole grain, whole wheat, whole oat, etc as one of the first ingredients. If the first ingredients include refined grains, a type of sugar, or hydrogenated oils, you can assume that the product is unhealthy. Become familiar with the different names or terms used for common ingredients. For example, you will know an item has sugar if you see any of the following terms:
- Types of sugar: beet sugar, brown sugar, buttered sugar, cane sugar, caster sugar, coconut sugar, date sugar, golden sugar, invert sugar, muscovado sugar, organic raw sugar, raspadura sugar, evaporated cane juice, and confectioner’s sugar.
- Types of syrup: carob syrup, golden syrup, high-fructose corn syrup, honey, agave nectar, malt syrup, maple syrup, oat syrup, rice bran syrup, and rice syrup.
- Other added sugars: barley malt, molasses, cane juice crystals, lactose, corn sweetener, crystalline fructose, dextran, malt powder, ethyl maltol, fructose, fruit juice concentrate, galactose, glucose, disaccharides, maltodextrin, and maltose.
Your Food Label: Ingredient List
Evaluate the ingredient list on your food label. What are the first five ingredients listed? Knowing that the ingredients are listed in order from most to least, what do the ingredients tell you about the food item? Are there ingredients listed that you are not familiar with? If so, take a few minutes to look up the ingredient to identify what it is.
Water
Water is not on the food label, but it is essential for your health. During 2015–2018, US children and adolescents drank an average of 23 ounces of plain water daily, and US adults drank an average of 44 ounces. Although there is no recommendation for how much plain water everyone should drink daily, there are recommendations for how much daily total water intake should come from a variety of beverages and foods. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommendations for total water intake from all foods and liquids are 3.7 liters for men, that equates to 125 ounces or approximately 13 cups, and 2.7 liters for women, which equates to 91 ounces or 9 cups.
Water is your body’s principal chemical component and makes up about 60 percent of your body weight. Every system in your body depends on water. For example, water flushes toxins out of vital organs, carries nutrients to your cells, and provides a moist environment for ear, nose and throat tissues. Lack of water can lead to dehydration, a condition that occurs when you don’t have enough water in your body to carry out normal functions. Even mild dehydration can drain your energy and make you tired.
 For your body to function properly, you must replenish its water supply by consuming beverages and foods that contain water. It is important to drink plenty of water to prevent dehydration and aid in the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients.
Antioxidants
Another element to consider that is not directly noted on your food label is your intake of antioxidants [3] . Antioxidants are substances we consume that may help to reduce cell damage. Antioxidants may come from the foods we eat or from dietary supplements. Examples of antioxidants include vitamins C and E, selenium, and carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin. Vegetables and fruits are rich sources of antioxidants.
Antioxidants may help to reduce cell damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are highly unstable molecules that are naturally formed when you exercise and when your body converts food into energy. Your body can also be exposed to free radicals from a variety of environmental sources, such as cigarette smoke, air pollution, and sunlight. Free radicals have been shown to cause “oxidative stress” in the body thus damaging healthy cells. Although not conclusive, research shows that antioxidants work to reduce the chances of cellular damage. Because antioxidants help to reduce cell damage, it has been theorized that they in turn help to reduce chances of many diseases, including cancer.
Organic and GMO (bioengineered)
Along with reviewing the food label on packages, you might also see statements such as “organic” or “Non-GMO” It is helpful to understand what these statements mean.
Organic Labeling [4]
Organic products must be produced using agricultural production practices that foster resource cycling, promote ecological balance, maintain and improve soil and water quality, minimize the use of synthetic materials, and conserve biodiversity.
There are four organic labels:
“100 Percent Organic”
- Used to label any product that contains 100 percent organic ingredients (excluding salt and water, which are considered natural)
- Most raw, unprocessed or minimally processed farm crops can be labeled “100 percent organic”
“Organic”
- Any product that contains a minimum of 95 percent organic ingredients (excluding salt and water)
- Up to 5 percent of ingredients may be nonorganic agricultural products and/or nonagricultural products on the National List (nonorganic agricultural products and several nonagricultural products on the National List may only be used if they are not commercially available as organic)
“Made with Organic ______”
- Product contains at least 70 percent organically produced ingredients (excluding salt and water), with a number of detailed constraints regarding ingredients that comprise the nonorganic portion
Specific Organic Ingredient Listings
- Specific organic ingredients may be listed in the ingredient statement of products containing less than 70 percent organic contents—for example, “Ingredients: water, barley, beans, organic tomatoes, salt.”
Genetically Modified Foods (bioenginered)
The terms “bioengineering,” “genetically modified organism,” “GMO,” and “genetic engineering,” are often used interchangeably for marketing purposes, but “bioengineered” is the appropriate term under the law. The National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Law, passed by Congress in July of 2016, directed USDA to establish a national mandatory standard for disclosing foods that are or may be bioengineered. The Standard defines bioengineered foods as those that contain detectable genetic material that has been modified through certain lab techniques and cannot be created through conventional breeding or found in nature.
Curious what types of food are genetically modified or bioengineered? Check out this List of bioengineered Foods


17.3: Learning Outcomes
The content, assignments, and assessments for Principles of Management are aligned to the following learning outcomes.
You can also use this link to download the complete set of learning outcomes for the course .
Module 1: Introduction to Management
Describe the primary functions of management and the roles of managers.
- Describe what management is.
- Explain the primary functions of management.
- Describe the primary types of managers and the roles they play.
- Explain the advantages that arise from managing people well.
Module 2: History of Management
Describe the work of major contributors to the field of management.
- Describe the contributions of Frederick W. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and Henry Gantt to the field of scientific management.
- Describe the contributions of Max Weber and Henri Fayol to the field of bureaucratic management.
- Describe the contributions of Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo (Hawthorne studies) to the field of humanistic management.
- Describe current developments in management practices.
Module 3: Planning and Mission
Explain how managers align the planning process with company mission, vision, and values.
- Distinguish between mission, vision, and values.
- Explain the pros and cons of planning.
- Explain the stages of the planning cycle.
- List and describe the types of plans and common planning tools.
Module 4: Environments and Strategic Management
Explain the components and considerations of strategic management.
- Explain the role of strategy in management.
- Describe common frameworks used to evaluate the business environment.
- Describe common frameworks used for situational analysis.
- Explain the stages of strategy, and describe the common types of business strategies.
- Explain the key aspects of the environment that can affect strategy.
Module 5: Decision Making
Explain the process and techniques of individual and group decision-making.
- Describe the barriers to individual decision-making and common styles of decision-making.
- Explain the concept of “rational decision making” and contrast it with prospect theory, bounded rationality, heuristics, and robust decisions.
- Explain evidence-based decision making and its tools.
- Describe the components and use of a decision tree.
- Explain common techniques used to manage group decision making.
Module 6: Organizational Structures
Identify common organizational structures and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
- Explain the purpose of organization.
- Describe common organizational structures and their advantages and disadvantages.
- Identify important factors for consideration in organizational design.
- Describe current trends in organization and job design.
Module 7: Human Resource Management
Discuss the purpose of HR management and its legal constraints.
- Explain the purpose of human resource management for both the organization and individuals.
- Summarize the key laws affecting human resource practices.
- Describe effective strategies for recruiting and selecting qualified job applicants.
- Describe employee orientation and training approaches.
- Describe employee development and performance evaluations.
- Describe common employee compensation, incentive, and benefits strategies.
- Describe the options for employee separation/termination.
- Describe current trends and challenges in HR management.
Module 8: Groups, Teams, and Teamwork
Explain group and team dynamics within organizations.
- Describe common group behaviors that can help or hurt organization goals.
- Describe the types of teams found in business organizations.
- Describe common techniques used to build effective teams.
- Describe the five stages of team development.
- Describe common types and causes of conflict that arise within teams.
Module 9: Culture and Diversity
Discuss organizational culture and the benefits of diversity.
- Describe organizational culture, and explain how culture can be a competitive advantage.
- Identify key dimensions of organizational culture.
- Identify the main influences on organizational culture, and explain how culture is maintained.
- Describe the key techniques for initiating and fostering cultural change.
- Identify the advantages and challenges of employee diversity within organizations.
Module 10: Leadership
Recognize good and poor leadership and the varieties of leadership.
- Differentiate between leadership and management.
- Identify the traits, dimensions, and styles of effective leaders.
- Compare examples of effective and poor leadership.
- Summarize the situational theories of leadership.
- Summarize transformational and transactional theories of leadership.
Module 11: Motivation
Recognize the importance of employee motivation and how to promote it.
- Explain the importance of employee motivation in an organization.
- Explain needs-based theories of motivation.
- Explain process-based theories of motivation.
- Describe the job characteristics that affect motivation.
- Explain goal-setting theory.
- Explain reinforcement theory.
- Explain the manager’s role in promoting motivation.
Module 12: The Individual and the Organization
Recognize how employee personality and attitude affect organizational fit.
- Recognize the role of personal values and personality at work.
- Explain common biases that can affect a manager’s perception of employees.
- Explain the major attitudes that affect job performance.
- List and explain common factors that influence job fitness and performance.
Module 13: Ethics in Business
Describe the methods of encouraging ethical behavior and the laws encouraging good corporate practices.
- Explain the need for ethics in the workplace.
- Explain the US Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations and how the compliance steps encourage ethical behavior.
- Describe the influences on an employee’s ethical choices.
- Describe practical steps that managers should take to model ethical behavior and encourage ethical choices.
- Explain corporate social responsibility (CSR) and its relationship to economic performance.
Module 14: Communication
Describe typical business communication, and explain barriers to effective communication.
- Recognize the role of communication in the management function.
- Differentiate between typical communication flows within an organization.
- Explain barriers to effective communication.
- Differentiate between typical channels of business communication.
Module 15: Control
Explain the methods and need for control within an organization.
- Explain what control means in a business setting and why it is needed.
- Explain the basic control process and monitoring points.
- Describe the different levels and types of control.
- Explain the need for a balanced scorecard.
- Explain the use of financial and nonfinancial controls in business.
Module 16: Globalization and Business
Describe current trends and challenges in global business management.
- Describe current trends in global business.
- Explain the risk tradeoffs in typical forms of global business.
- Explain the dimensions of cultural difference and their effect on global business.
- Explain the strategies managers can use to respond to cultural differences.
- Explain how managers can effectively train employees for international assignments.
Contributors and Attributions
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- Magnify. Authored by : Eucalyp. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/magnify/1276779/ . License : CC BY: Attribution


5.5C: Deep Wound Healing
A deep wound involves the inner, deeper layers of the skin (dermis).
- Describe the process of deep wound healing
Key Points
- Deep wounds are more difficult to heal, as the basement membrane and/or skin appendages ( hair follicles and sweat and oil glands) may be destroyed.
- The healing of deep wounds may occur only at the edges of the wound, with scar tissue covering the center of the wound site.
- Loss of physiological function is often associated with deep wounds as they do not heal correctly.
- After healing, the tissue underlying a deep wound may be weaker than the surrounding mature tissue, making repeat injury more likely.
Key Terms
- basement membrane : Controls the traffic of cells and molecules between the dermis and epidermis, and provides support to epidermal cells.
- skin appendage : Skin-associated structures that serve a particular function, including sensation, contractility, lubrication, and heat loss.
Deep wounds that damage the dermis, or even the underlying muscle and fat, are more difficult to heal than shallow, epidermal-only wounds. The wound healing processes may be extended and scar tissue is likely to form due to improper re-epithelialization.
Additionally, deep wounds are more susceptible to infection, and also to the development of systemic infection through the circulatory system, as well as dysregulation that results in chronic wounds such as ulcers.
Wound healing phases : This image illustrates the phases of wound healing. Limits vary within faded intervals, mainly by wound size and healing conditions, but the image does not include major impairments that cause chronic wounds.
The wound healing process for deep wounds is similar to that of shallow wounds. However, with the removal of the dermis and its associated skin appendages, re-epithelialization can only occur from the wound edge, with no contribution from the dermal compartment.
Therefore, proper reconstitution of the epidermis is often only seen at the edge of the wound, with fibrous scar tissue—formed from the extracellular matrix (ECM) deposited during the proliferative phase—covering the rest of the wound site.
With the formation of a scar, the original physiological properties of the tissue are lost. For example scars are less flexible than skin, and do not feature sweat glands or hair follicles.
The ECM formed during wound healing may also be weaker in deep wounds, making the site susceptible to additional later wounding. The provisional ECM laid down during the proliferative phase is rich in fibronectin and collagen III that combine to allow quicker cell movement through the wound, which is very important during wound healing.
However, the ECM of mature skin is rich in collagen I. In large, deep wounds the remodelling of a fibronectin and collagen III-rich ECM to a collagen-I rich ECM may not occur, leading to a weakening of the tissue.
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9.9: Contesting the Representation of the United States
Antonín Dvořák, Symphony No. 9 “From the New World”
Throughout the 19th century, Europeans considered the United States to be a cultural backwater. Americans, of course, were preoccupied not with artistic innovation but with expanding and stabilizing their nation. Those who did pursue the arts were expected to receive their training in Europe and to imitate European models. In the late 19th century, however, American composers became increasingly interested in developing a unique national voice.
None of this is to say that there was no distinctively American music in the 19th century. There certainly was—much of which is explored elsewhere in this volume. Hymn composers in New England and the South had already developed several new strains of church music, while diverse folk traditions flourished in rural areas. In addition, there were the rich musical traditions of Native Americans, who faced eradication on a national scale, and African Americans, whose influence was first felt in the sphere of popular and dance music. However, none of this mattered to members of the arts establishment. They valued European-style concert music and sought a way to express American identity in that context.
Surprisingly, the composer who is usually cited as launching the American school of composition was not an American at all, but a Czech. Although he did not actually break new ground, Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904) tends to get credit for the bizarre reason that he was European, and therefore commanded greater respect and attention from his contemporaries than did American composers. In fact, Dvořák was brought to the United States for the express purpose of guiding the development of American music.
Dvořák was a prime candidate for teaching Americans how to express national identity in music, for he had first made a name for himself by doing the same for the Czech musical establishment. His first successful composition was a series of orchestral pieces ostensibly based on Slavic dances. For Dvořák, however, his national identity was a source of frustration. He struggled to be accepted not as a Czech composer but as a good composer.
When Dvořák came to New York City in 1891, he was at the height of his career. He had been invited to serve as the first director of the National Conservatory of Music, which was to train American musicians in the European concert tradition. He was also expected to contribute to the development of American concert music. Dvořák produced two monumental “American” works during his stay in the United States, both of which were premiered in 1893. One was his String Quartet No. 12, known as the “American Quartet” (a work composed, ironically, during his visit to a Czech community in the midwest). The other was his Symphony No. 9 “From the New World.” The symphony in particular exemplifies Dvořák’s ideas about what was American in music.
Dvořák was regularly asked for his views on this subject, and in 1895 he published an article entitled “Music in America” that contained his advice to American composers wishing to develop a national style. He recommended, unsurprisingly, that they draw inspiration from folk music: specifically, that of African Americans and Native Americans. Dvořák, of course, knew very little about American folk traditions—he was completely ignorant of folk music in most parts of the country, while his ideas about Native American music were more fantasy than fact. His observation that Native American and African American musics were “practically identical” betrays his shallow thinking on the subject.
The one thing Dvořák really did know something about was African American spirituals . He encountered this repertoire through Harry Burleigh, who was a student at the National Conservatory of Music during the time that Dvořák served as director. Burleigh had learned to sing spirituals from his grandfather, who had been born a slave but had purchased his freedom in the 1830s, and he later gained international fame both for his concert arrangements of spirituals and for his original art songs.  He reported that “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot,” apparently the composer’s favorite item in his repertoire, was the basis for the theme in the first movement of Symphony No. 9. The second movement, which we will consider in detail, also features a spiritual-like theme. In fact, it was such a convincing fake that it was frequently mistaken for a genuine spiritual after a student of Dvořák’s wrote a text for it, titled “Goin’ Home,” in 1922.
Dvořák’s Symphony No. 9 also has a Native American connection, although it is romanticized and inauthentic. Dvořák, like most Europeans, was familiar with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s 1855 epic poem The Song of Hiawatha , in which the poet provides a largely fictionalized account of the life of an Ojibwe warrior. Hiawatha had been translated into Czech in 1870, and Dvořák was familiar with it before his visit to the United States. Although Symphony No. 9 is an example of absolute music and should not be understood to communicate a specific, coherent narrative, Dvořák told interviewers that the two internal movements were both influenced by Hiawatha , and that he intended the second movement as a sketch for a dramatic setting of the text (a project that he never in fact pursued). Although Dvořák offered few specifics, it has been argued that the two themes of the second movement—one gentle and romantic, one distraught and funereal—portray the wooing and death of Hiawatha’s bride, Minnehaha.
|
Time |
Form |
What to listen for |
|---|---|---|
|
0’00” |
Intro |
The brass play a sequence of sustained harmonies |
|
0’53” |
A |
The spiritual-inspired theme is heard in the English horn; it has a form of aba’ |
|
2’44” |
Intro |
The woodwinds repeat the sequence of harmonies |
|
3’12” |
A |
Muted strings play the b section of the A theme; the English horn concludes with the a’ section |
|
4’54” |
The horns play the opening motif of the A theme |
|
|
5’20” |
B |
This plaintive, minor-mode theme, played by the oboe, is accompanied by tremolo strings |
|
5’56” |
C |
For this minor-mode theme, pizzicato strings provide the steady pulse of a funeral march |
|
6’45” |
B |
The B theme returns in the muted violins |
|
7’52” |
D |
This theme, also cast as a funeral march, is played by the muted violins |
|
8’48” |
B |
The B theme briefly returns in the muted strings |
|
9’11” |
E |
Various instruments and sections, beginning with the oboe and flute, imitate birdsong |
|
9’27” |
The cyclical theme, which returns in each movement, is heard in the low brass, while the A theme is heard in the trumpets |
|
| 10’08” |
This theme returns in the English horn; the b section A is played by muted strings; the a’ section begins in solo strings |
|
| 12’43” | Intro | The opening passage is repeated in the brass; it resolves via an ascending string passage into a quiet, low-range final chord |
Dvořák’s Symphony No. 9 follows the standard four-movement pattern for a European symphony, two examples of which were examined in Chapter 7. We will take a look at the slow movement, which Dvořák placed second. This movement is in ternary form , with a brief introductory passage that also serves as the conclusion. The introduction consists of a series of seven chords, played slowly by the brass section. The harmonies, which are unexpected and dramatic, seem to lift the curtain on a magical scene.
The first section features Dvořák’s spiritual-inspired theme. It is first played by the English horn—a double reed instrument that can be thought of as a low-pitched oboe. The theme itself is also in ternary form (a b a’). The a’ section concludes with an ascent in the melody that brings it to a satisfying close. The first statement of the theme is followed by a repetition of the introductory chords in the winds, the b section of the theme in the strings, and the conclusion of the theme in the English horn.
The middle section of the movement offers a marked change in mood, as Dvořák increases the tempo and switches from the major to the minor mode. This section is primarily in rondo form , meaning that a principle theme alternates with secondary themes. The principle theme is agitated and mournful, featuring a repeated descending figure, while the secondary themes are accompanied by a steady bass line that could belong to a funeral march. After the final abbreviated statement of the principle theme, Dvořák inserts a major-mode passage in which the winds and strings imitate birds. Dvořák frequently included birdsong in his compositions, and his “American Quartet” also features such imitations. In this case, the birdsong can be directly related to Hiawatha , which includes the telling of a myth in which people are turned into birds.
Next, Dvořák includes a reference to the first-movement theme based on “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot,” overlaid with the spiritual-like theme from this movement. By stating the two themes simultaneously, Dvořák draws our attention to their similarity. Both, after all, reflect the same African American influence. Dvořák is also continuing the practice of connecting the movements of a symphony, known as cyclical technique , that we first saw at work in Berlioz’s Fantastical Symphony . The closing section contains the last statement of the spiritual theme, although this time the b passage is laced with pauses. These convey the impression that the
“singer” of this wordless song is overcome with emotion, needing perhaps to sob or catch their breath. Finally, the opening chords are heard once more, the last of which is repeated and sustained.
This movement—and Symphony No. 9 as a whole—can be taken as Dvořák putting his own advice to American composers into action. Those composers, however, did not necessarily appreciate his guidance. Their negative reactions were largely understandable. To begin with, the American arts establishment had already been grappling with the task of developing a unique national voice. That a foreigner would step in and tell them what to do was, to many, unpalatable. Composers also objected to Dvořák’s specific advice. The music of Native Americans and African Americans, they argued, was not the music of all Americans. It represented only a small portion of the populace and could not stand in for the country as a whole. While certain individuals objected for racist reasons, most simply did not accept Dvořák’s argument that a national style could be derived from these narrow sources.
Amy Beach, Gaelic Symphony
One of many composers who rejected Dvořák’s approach was Amy Beach (1867- 1944). As we will see, Beach preferred to found an American style on the folk music of her ancestors, who hailed from the British Isles. Before examining her response to Dvořák’s Symphony No. 9, however, we need to learn something about this extraordinary woman.
Beach counts among the many composers who began their careers as child prodigies. Born into a well-to-do New Hampshire family, she demonstrated a thorough grasp of pitch before she could talk and was harmonizing melodies at the age of two. She composed her first piano music—a set of waltzes—at the age of four, and was soon giving public piano recitals that attracted the attention of the press. When her family moved to a Boston suburb in 1875, Beach was able to receive professional training in music, although she was to remain almost entirely self-taught as a composer. She would learn by analyzing newly-published music from Europe and studying Berlioz’s textbook on orchestration.
|
Gaelic Symphony, Movement II. . Composer: Amy Beach Performance: Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Karl Krueger (2011) |
Beach gave her debut performance with the Boston Symphony Orchestra at the age of sixteen, and might have gone on to become the great piano virtuoso of her era. Instead, at the age of 18, she married. Her husband, Dr. Henry Harris Aubrey Beach, was twenty-four years her senior and, in Beach’s own words, “old-fashioned.” He believed that it was a man’s honorable obligation to support his wife, and he was not willing to allow Beach to pursue a career performing or teaching piano. He supported her work as a composer, however, and did a great deal to promote her success. For the twenty-five years of their marriage, therefore, Beach committed herself to composition. She won accolades from both the press and her peers, and was warmly accepted into what has been termed the Second New England School of composers.
Beach first gained attention in 1892 with her Mass in E-flat major, which was the first work by a woman ever to be performed by Boston’s prestigious Handel and Haydn Society. Then in 1896 the Boston Symphony Orchestra premiered her Gaelic Symphony , the first to be composed by an American woman. Although it is only fair to acknowledge Beach’s role as a trailblazer, many now consider the Gaelic Symphony to be the first great American symphony, regardless of the composer’s identity. Beach preferred not to write or speak about her experiences as a female composer in an era when women were discouraged from entering the field, and later stated only that she had met with no particular difficulty. In 1900, Beach appeared as soloist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra in her Piano Concerto in C-sharp minor—a rare public performance during her married years. The extreme difficulty of the work attests to Beach’s virtuosic abilities.
Upon her husband’s death in 1910, Beach resumed her performance career. She toured Europe in the 1910s, where she was praised as a rare American composer whose work equalled that of Europeans in quality. Both her Gaelic Symphony and her Piano Concerto—again with the composer at the keyboard—were well received. Back in the United States, Beach continued to compose and perform while also developing music programs for children and mentoring younger composers.
Beach—like all American composers active in the 1890s—was well aware of Dvořák’s advice and intimately familiar with his Symphony No. 9. In 1893, she was one of a number of prominent composers interviewed by the Boston Herald on the topic of Dvořák’s recent call for music based on the melodies of African Americans (he would only later praise Native American influence). Each was asked what they thought about Dvořák’s advice and what they saw as the future of American concert music. Beach acknowledged that spirituals were beautiful and expressive, but she rejected them as the basis for an American style. Instead, as she put it, “We of the North should be far more likely to be influenced by the old English, Scotch, or Irish songs inherited with our literature from our ancestors.” She agreed, it seems, with Dvořák’s call to incorporate folk influences, but disagreed about which folk music embodied American identity—or, at least, her identity. Beach’s response indicates that, while Southern composers might be differently influenced by their musical environment, the music of the plantations meant nothing to her.
Beach put her theory into practice with the Gaelic Symphony . She began by studying Irish folks tunes, which were to form the basis of her work. She eventually incorporated four melodies that had been published in an 1841 Dublin magazine. However, it was her intent not only to quote genuine Irish folk melodies but also to absorb their musical language and use it in her original themes. Beach began by writing the second movement, which we will examine. Her symphony, like Dvořák’s, is traditional in its overall structure. It opens and closes with lengthy movements in sonata form, while the third movement is slow and expressive.
The second movement begins with a complete presentation of an Irish folk tune titled “The Little Field of Barley.” After a brief introduction by the horn and strings, the tune is played by the oboe—a choice of instrument perhaps inspired by the English horn in the second movement of Dvořák’s symphony. Accompanying drones in the clarinets and bassoon can be heard as imitating a bagpipe. At the conclusion of the melody, the tempo changes, suddenly becoming much faster. We then hear a series of variations on the tune. The first is provided by the violins, who play rapid series of high, sparkling notes. Next we hear from the winds, who pass the theme back and forth with the violins. The horn and English horn then take the theme to the minor mode. Upon the recovery of the major mode, the tempo slows and we hear the original tune once more from the English horn. At this point the music swells dramatically, although a concluding fast passage featuring flutes and violins means that the movement ends with a smile.