10.1: Urine Specimen
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the physical, chemical, and microscopic characteristics of urine
- Verbalize the steps in collecting a urine specimen
- Interpret the results of a urine analysis
Clinical nursing practice relies on the comprehensive understanding of urine specimens, encompassing the physical, chemical, and microscopic features of this diagnostic testing. This information is vital for identifying potential health issues, conducting accurate assessments, providing effective patient care, and developing treatment plans based on the specific characteristics observed in the urine samples. This chapter not only explores these fundamental characteristics but also guides you through the meticulous process of urine specimen collection, emphasizing the importance of precise technique and patient-centered care. Equally vital is the skill of interpreting urine analysis results, which enables nurses to translate findings into actionable insights for optimal patient care.
Urinalysis Overview
A complete urinalysis examines the physical, chemical, and microscopic composition of a sample of urine. A visual analysis of the urine describes the physical appearance of the urine. Physical characteristics include the color and turbidity (cloudiness) as well as the presence or absence of particles and the odor.
Chemical analysis of the urine involves placing a special test strip, called a dipstick , into the urine. The dipstick contains chemically infused pads on the strip that change color when certain substances are present in the urine. The color on the dipstick is compared with a color table that was provided with the test packaging that indicates what the different colors on the dipstick mean. Dipstick testing can be used to assess the pH level (acid-base level), urine specific gravity (concentration of solutes), as well as a variety of substances in the urine, such as protein (such as albumin), ketones (spill into urine when the body has to break down fats for energy), glucose (sugar), bilirubin (yellow pigment produced by the liver that is found in bile), nitrites (indicative of bacterial presence), and leukocyte esterase (white blood cells).
Microscopic analysis of the urine involves looking at drops of concentrated urine under a microscope to evaluate the presence of various cellular and noncellular components. It can be used to see if there are physical traces of foreign particles, such as crystals, bacteria, yeast, red or white blood cells, or urinary casts (small particles shaped like a tube that may contain different types of cells or substances). The microscopic analysis is typically performed in conjunction with a routine urinalysis, which includes the physical and chemical tests.
Purpose
A urinalysis is a valuable diagnostic tool for healthcare professionals to assess various aspects of health, including monitoring of certain health conditions (such as diabetes, kidney disease, and liver disease) and diagnosing urinary tract infections. Gradual changes in urine composition over time or big jumps to values outside of the normal ranges are potential cues that can alert the provider to further investigate the body systems and how they are working.
Types of Urine Collection
There are several types of urine sample collection methods, each suited to specific purposes or medical requirements. The choice of method depends on the clinical or diagnostic need. The following are common types of urine sample collections:
- A clean-catch urine sample is the most common method of urine collection. The patient is asked to start urinating into the toilet, stop briefly, and then continue urinating into the container. This is done to avoid contamination of the sample with initial stream urine and any bacteria around the urethral opening. It is often used for routine urinalysis, culture and sensitivity testing, and other general diagnostic purposes.
- A twenty-four-hour urine collection involves collecting all urine produced over a twenty-four-hour period. The collection typically starts after the first voided morning urine and ends with the first voided morning urine on the following day. It is used for tests that require measurement of substances excreted over an extended period, such as creatinine clearance, protein excretion, or hormone levels.
- The first morning void (FMV) sample is used for some tests. The first urine voided in the morning is usually more concentrated, making it suitable for some specific tests, such as pregnancy tests and for monitoring hormone levels.
- A timed urine collection may be ordered. For this, urine is collected at specific times throughout the day, typically for several hours or even a full day. It is used for tests that require monitoring of substances or metabolites at different points in time, such as glucose tolerance tests.
- To obtain a catheterized urine sample , a catheter is inserted into the bladder to obtain a urine sample directly from the bladder. This method is employed when a clean sample is necessary, especially if the person cannot provide one through normal voiding, such as in cases of urinary retention or surgery.
- The method of suprapubic aspiration is invasive and involves using a needle and syringe to aspirate urine directly from the bladder through the abdominal wall. It is used in specific cases where other methods are not feasible or sterile samples are required, such as in infants or when a catheter cannot be used.
- A pediatric collection device may be used. For infants and young children who are not yet toilet-trained, a urine collection bag or adhesive pediatric collection device can be used. These devices adhere to the child’s genital area to collect urine. Care must be taken to ensure a clean and uncontaminated sample.
- A random urine sample is collected at any time without specific timing or preparation. It can be used for a variety of tests but is often less reliable compared to clean-catch or timed samples.
See the competency checklist for Obtaining a Urine Specimen from a Foley Catheter. You can find the checklists on the Student resources tab of your book page on openstax.org.
Procedural Steps for Urine Collection
To collect a clean-catch or midstream urine sample, you need a sterile urine collection container and facility-approved antiseptic wipes or antiseptic solution. Start by washing your hands thoroughly with soap and water to prevent contamination of the sample. Identify the patient with name and date of birth, matching with patient verbally and checking ID bands. Preprinted labels should be verified too. Don gloves and prepare the collection container by opening the collection container lid. Use caution not to touch the inside of the container or the lid, as the inside of the container and lid should remain sterile. Set the container aside in a clean, convenient location, using caution that the inside of the lid does not touch any surface.
Ensure patient privacy and explain the procedure to the patient. Prepare the patient by cleaning the genitalia, which helps reduce the risk of contamination from the surrounding skin. If the patient has a vagina, spread the labia with your nondominant hand. With your dominant hand, cleanse the genital area using a facility-approved antiseptic wipe and wiping from front to back to prevent bacteria from entering the urinary meatus. Use one wipe to clean the right side of the genitalia, one wipe to clean the left side of the genitalia, and one wipe to clean down the middle. If the patient has a penis, use a circular motion to cleanse the tip of the penis, starting at the urinary meatus and working away from the urinary meatus. If the patient is not circumcised, retract the foreskin prior to cleansing the penis.
Before collecting the sample, ask the patient to urinate a small amount into the toilet to clear any potential contaminants from the urethra. Ask the patient to stop the urine stream and then hold the urine collection container in one hand and gently spread the labia for women or retract the foreskin for men to expose the urethral opening. Instruct the patient to restart the urine stream into the sterile container. Collect enough urine to fill the container to the level indicated on the collection container, which is typically around 30 to 60 mL or as specified. Instruct the patient to finish urinating into the toilet if needed, and then carefully cap the collection container without touching the inside of the lid. Label the collection container with the patient’s name, date, time collected, and any other requested information according to facility. After sealing the container, place the collection container in a biohazardous lab specimen bag, and wash your hands thoroughly again to ensure hygiene. Deliver the sealed urine sample container to the laboratory as instructed. The sample should be sent promptly to the lab or stored according to facility protocol if immediate testing is not possible.
To perform a twenty-four-hour urine sample, the nurse will collect all urine produced by the patient for twenty-four hours. Typically, twenty-four-hour urine samples are started in the morning upon waking up. Instruct the patient to urinate upon waking up and discard the first morning urine. Note the exact time of the first morning urine, as this is the start time for the twenty-four-hour collection period. To ensure accurate results, it is crucial to document the start time of the twenty-four-hour collection period as well as the end time for the testing. Collect all urine passed for the next twenty-four hours, ensuring every drop of urine during this time is included in the collection.
See the competency checklist for Collecting a Twenty-Four-Hour Urine Specimen. You can find the checklists on the Student resources tab of your book page on openstax.org.
To collect the urine, the patient will void into a clean, plastic collection container that fits under the toilet seat (or a clean urinal may be used). The urine from the collection container or urinal will then be poured into a large, plastic container (Figure 10.2). It is important to collect all urine throughout the twenty-four hours, being careful that no urine spills. It is essential to avoid any contamination with water, toilet paper, bowel movements, or other foreign substances, as contamination may impact the test results. The twenty-four-hour urine container should be kept cold throughout the twenty-four-hour window. Typically, the container is put on ice at the patient’s bedside in healthcare settings. It is critical to replace the ice as necessary to ensure the urine remains cold. If the twenty-four-hour urine container fills up, keep the full container on ice and obtain another container from the laboratory. Once the twenty-four-hour marker has been reached, instruct the patient to void one last time, adding the urine to the collection container. Clearly label the container with the patient’s name, date of birth, start and end times of the collection, and any other information requested by the facility’s policies. Transport the sample to the lab as soon as possible for accurate results, ensuring the sample remains cold during transport.
Documentation of Urine Collection
Proper documentation of urine collection is a crucial aspect of patient care, as it helps maintain the integrity of samples, ensures patient safety, and provides a clear record of the collection process for future reference. It also aids in tracking and tracing samples in case of any issues or disputes. For instance, accurate recording of the start and end times is crucial when a patient is undergoing a twenty-four-hour urine collection to assess kidney function. In cases where there may be concerns or disputes about the collected sample, perhaps the start and end times are not noted on the sample container, detailed documentation can become a valuable reference for tracking and tracing the collection times. The first step of documentation is to verify the patient’s identity by checking their identification band and asking for their name and date of birth to verify the sample was collected from the correct patient. Document the date and time of urine collection, type of urine sample collected (e.g., clean-catch sample, twenty-four-hour collection), any relevant patient information (e.g., patient’s complaints or symptoms), and special instructions or comments (if applicable). Some electronic medical record systems may have specific forms or templates for urine collection documentation.
Document the transfer of samples to the laboratory, if required. If the sample needs to be stored before testing or if there are specific storage requirements, document these instructions clearly in the medical record as well. Document any unexpected events, deviations from the standard procedure, or patient reactions during the urine collection process. Before leaving the patient or completing the documentation, review all the information to ensure accuracy and completeness. Ensure that all documentation complies with institutional, legal, and privacy regulations governing healthcare records.
Patient Education
Patient education is a critical component when performing a urine sample collection. Providing clear and thorough instructions to the patient helps ensure the accuracy and reliability of the sample and contributes to a positive patient experience. Be sure to include the following:
- Explain why the urine sample is necessary.
- Note the specific type of urine sample required (e.g., clean-catch sample, twenty-four-hour collection) and why it is needed for the patient’s diagnosis or treatment.
- Describe the collection procedure and what they can expect throughout the process. If the patient will be collecting the urine sample independently, additional instructions will be needed to ensure the patient can accurately perform the procedure.
Encourage the patient to ask questions if they have any doubts or concerns. Make sure they understand the instructions fully before they start the collection. If necessary, explain when and how the patient will receive the results of the urine sample and any subsequent actions required. Offer written instructions or a handout summarizing the key points for the patient to reference as needed.
Clear and patient-centered communication is essential in ensuring that the patient understands the urine sample collection process, which, in turn, enhances the quality and reliability of the sample. It also contributes to a positive patient experience and cooperation during the procedure.
Interpretation of Results
Interpreting a urine analysis involves analyzing the results of various tests performed on a urine sample to assess a person’s health. The interpretation of urinalysis results can provide valuable insights into various aspects of an individual’s health, including kidney function, hydration status, and the presence of certain medical conditions. To correctly interpret the results, the nurse must be aware of normal findings, abnormal findings, and factors that affect the results.
Normal Findings
Normal urine is yellow, clear, and has a mild odor. Other normal findings of a urinalysis are listed in Table 10.1. While these findings are considered “normal,” it is important to note that urine composition can vary among individuals based on factors such as age, diet, hydration status, and overall health. What may be considered “normal” for urine findings in one age group or life stage may differ from another. For example, infants may have different norms for urine color and chemical content compared to adults. Additionally, changes in kidney function, metabolism, and other physiological factors associated with aging can impact urine characteristics in older adults. Health conditions more common in certain age groups may also influence urine test results. As a result, healthcare professionals take these variations into account when interpreting urine findings, recognizing that what is considered normal can differ across different age groups and life stages.
| Physical Examination | |
| Color | Yellow (light/pale yellow to amber) |
| Turbidity | Clear |
| Odor | Mild, slightly ammonia-like odor |
| Chemical Examination | |
| pH | 4.5 to 8.0 (pH of 7 is neutral, >7 is alkaline, <7 is acidic) |
| Specific gravity | 1.005 to 1.030 |
| Glucose | Negative |
| Blood | Negative |
| Ketones | Negative |
| Protein | Less than or equal to 150 mg/day or 10 mg/dL |
| Urobilinogen | 0.1 mg/dL to 1 mg/dL in random samples or up to 4 mg/daily |
| Bilirubin | Negative |
| Nitrites | Negative |
| Leukocyte esterase | Negative |
| Microscopic Examination | |
| Red blood cells | Zero to five cells/high-power field |
| White blood cells | Zero to five cells/high-power field |
| Eosinophils | Absent |
| Squamous epithelial cells | Less than or equal to fifteen to twenty cells/high-power field |
| Crystals | Absent |
| Bacteria, fungi, yeast, or parasites | Absent |
| Casts | Absent |
Abnormal Findings
Abnormal findings include urine that is colorless, red, orange, dark yellow, or brown, cloudy, or foul smelling. Other abnormal findings are listed in Table 10.2.
| Physical Examination | |
| Color | Colorless (indicates diluted sample), red (may be secondary to blood, certain foods, or medications), blue or green (may be secondary to certain foods, medications, or bacteria), orange (may be secondary to bile pigments, certain foods, or medications), dark yellow (concentrated sample, may indicate dehydration), or dark brown/tea colored (may be secondary to bile, certain foods, or medications) |
| Turbidity | Cloudy (indicates the presence of suspended particles, such as cells, crystals, or bacteria) |
| Odor | Foul (may indicate infection), fruity (may indicate diabetic ketosis), strong (may indicate dehydration), fecal (may indicate fistula) |
| Chemical Examination | |
| pH | Less than 4.5 (acidic; may indicate dehydration, diabetes, diarrhea) or greater than 8 (alkaline; may indicate old sample, hyperventilation, vomiting) |
| Specific gravity | Less than 1.005 (may indicate the urine is dilute/too much water) or greater than 1.030 (may indicate the urine is concentrated/not enough water) |
| Glucose | Greater than 1,000 mg/dL (may indicate diabetes, gestational diabetes, Cushing syndrome) |
| Blood | Present (may indicate kidney issues or muscle trauma) |
| Ketones | Present (may indicate uncontrolled diabetes, pregnancy, starvation) |
| Protein | Greater than 150 mg/day, or 10 mg/dL (may indicate congestive heart failure, strenuous exercise, kidney or pregnancy issues, or fever) |
| Urobilinogen | Less than 0.1 mg/dL or greater than 1 mg/dL in random samples, or greater than 4 mg/daily (may indicate liver disease, antibiotic use) |
| Bilirubin | Present (may indicate liver dysfunction) |
| Nitrites | Present (may indicate urinary tract infection [UTI]) |
| Leukocyte esterase | Present (may indicate inflammation) |
| Microscopic Examination | |
| Red blood cells | Greater than zero to five cells/high-power field (may indicate UTI or inflammation) |
| White blood cells | Greater than zero to five cells/high-power field (may indicate UTI or inflammation) |
| Eosinophils | Present (may indicate UTI or kidney issues) |
| Squamous epithelial cells | Greater than fifteen to twenty cells/high-power field (may indicate contamination, UTI) |
| Crystals | Present (may indicate acidic or alkaline urine, decreased urine output) |
| Bacteria, fungi, yeast, or parasites | Present (may indicate contamination, UTI) |
| Casts | Present (may indicate various kidney disorders) |
Nurse:
Liu
Clinical setting:
Medical-Surgical Inpatient Unit
Years in practice:
7
Facility location:
Utah
I was working on a medical-surgical unit when I received a call from the lab about urine lab results for one of our patients, Mrs. Anderson, a 72-year-old female who had been admitted with confusion. The lab reported several urinary abnormalities, including the presence of white blood cells, traces of blood, and elevated levels of nitrites in her urine. These findings raised concerns about a potential urinary tract infection (UTI), which is a common health issue in older adults and can result in confusion, or if untreated can lead to complication of urosepsis.
I notified the provider with the results. The provider started Mrs. Anderson on an antibiotic treatment to target the suspected UTI. Additionally, I emphasized the importance of increased fluid intake and proper hygiene to support her recovery. Over the next few days, we closely monitored Mrs. Anderson’s condition and her response to treatment. Her symptoms gradually improved, and follow-up urine lab results indicated a reduction in white blood cells, nitrites, and blood in her urine, suggesting that the UTI was resolving.
Factors Affecting Results
Urinalysis results may be affected by a variety of factors, including diet, medications, medical conditions, and contamination. What an individual eats and drinks can impact urine composition (Table 10.3).
| Factor | Alteration of Urinalysis |
|---|---|
| Dehydration | Concentrated urine, affects specific gravity |
| Extended exposure to light | Decomposes urobilinogen and bilirubin |
| Extended periods at room temperature | Encourages bacterial growth |
| Contamination | False-positive infection or alters pH level |
| Alkaline pH | False positive for protein |
| Glucose | Decrease in the sample pH |
| Contrast | False-positive specific gravity |
|
Certain foods and drugs
(including food coloring, blackberries, red beets, rhubarb, phenytoin, rifampicin, ibuprofen, chloroquine, deferoxamine, nitrofurantoin, metronidazole, phenolphthalein, phenothiazines, and imipenem/cilastatin) |
Alterations in urine color, odor, or pH value |
Other factors that affect urinalysis results include exercise, menstrual cycles, and pregnancy. Vigorous physical activity can lead to dehydration, which may affect urine concentration. For persons with ovaries, menstrual blood can sometimes contaminate a urine sample, causing false-positive results for hematuria , or blood in the urine. Pregnancy can affect urine composition, leading to changes in protein levels, glucose, and other parameters.
There are also factors associated with the collection procedure to consider. Urine composition can vary throughout the day. For example, the first morning urine sample may be more concentrated, while urine collected later in the day may be more dilute. Proper collection techniques may also impact the results. For example, the results of a twenty-four-hour urine collection may be impacted by forgetting to collect all of the urine, going beyond the twenty-four-hour time limit, losing some of the urine due to spilling or overflow, or not keeping the urine cold. Proper handling and storage of the urine sample are crucial. To ensure accurate urinalysis results, it is essential to consider these factors and take them into account when interpreting the data. Additionally, healthcare providers may use a combination of tests and clinical information to arrive at a comprehensive diagnosis when evaluating a patient’s health based on urinalysis results.


19.4C: Tonsils
The tonsils are one of the immune system’s first lines of defense against ingested or inhaled foreign pathogens.
- Describe the role of tonsils in the immune system
Key Points
- The four sets of tonsils are the adenoids, palatine tonsils, tubal tonsils,and the lingual tonsils.
- Tonsils consist of epithelial tissue with narrow folds called crypts, secondary lymphoid tissue that contains lymphocytes, and M cells that capture antigens in the respiratory tract.
- Tonsils tend to reach their largest size near puberty and gradually atrophy thereafter.
- Tonsils can become enlarged or inflamed and may be surgically removed in tonsillectomy. Chronic inflammation of the tonsils can cause their cells to increase in size ( hypertrophy ).
- Enlarged tonsils can make breathing more difficult and disrupt mucus drainage in the pharynx.
- Those with a tonsillectomy show no significant long term difference in immune system function, though minor changes in immune cell and antibody levels do occur.
Key Terms
- tonsillitis : Inflammation of the tonsils.
- tonsillectomy : The surgical removal of the tonsils, especially the palatine tonsils. Frequently accompanied by an adenoidectomy.
- squamous cell carcinoma : a cancer of squamous cell epithelial tissue.
- tonsils : Paired masses of secondary lymphoid tissue and epithelial tissue found in the pharynx.
The tonsils are small masses of secondary lymphoid tissue located in the pharynx. They function similarly to other types of secondary lymphoid organs and also capture antigens from respiratory tract pathogens.
Location and Structure of the Tonsils
There are four pairs of tonsils located within the pharynx. They function similarly but have a few structural differences.
- The adenoids are located in the wall of nasopharynx.
- The palatine tonsils are located in the sides of the oropharynx.
- The tubal tonsils are located in the wall of the nasopharynx near the entrance to each Eustachian tube.
- The lingual tonsils are located behind the tongue.
The tonsils are made of secondary lymphoid tissue and covered with an epithelium characteristic of the part of the body where they are located. For example, the adenoids and tubal tonsils are covered with the ciliated psuedostratified columnar epithelium of the nasopharynx, while the palatine and lingual tonsils are made up of the non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium of the oropharynx. The tonsils also contain very deep and narrow folds in their tissues called crypts. Like the thymus, the tonsils reach their largest size near puberty and gradually atrophy thereafter.
Function of the Tonsils
Tonsils : Palatine tonsils can be seen on the left and right sides at the back of the throat.
The tonsils primarily facilitate adaptive immune responses in the upper respiratory tract, one of the most common pathways for pathogen entry in the body. In a way, the tonsils are the “first line of defense” against potential respiratory pathogens. They contain specialized M cells that collect antigens produced by respiratory tract pathogens. The secondary lymphoid tissue within the tonsils functions like the same type of the tissue in lymph nodes. Captured antigens are presented to B and T cells within the tonsil, then the B cells migrate to germinal centers within the tonsil as an adaptive immune response is initiated. Additionally, evidence exists that suggests that tonsils may play a role in T cell maturation and development like the thymus does, but more research is needed.
Tonsil removal (tonsillectomy) is a common procedure to treat swollen and infected lymph nodes (tonsillitis). It does not appear to cause weakened immune function. Chronic infection of the adenoids can cause adenoid hypertrophy, increases in cell size from repeated damage. Enlarged tonsils can make it more difficult to breath and disrupt normal mucus drainage in the pharynx, so removal is generally recommended in those cases. Squamous cell carcinomas (epithelial tumor) and lymphomas (lymphocyte tumor) can also develop in the tonsillar tissue, and removal is a key treatment. Epidemiological studies show no significant change in immune system function in those that have a tonsillectomy, but minor increases in helper T cell levels and minor decreases in IgA levels (an antibody produced by B cells) were observed.
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19.2B: Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels
The lymphatic system comprises a network of conduits called lymphatic vessels that carry lymph unidirectionally towards the heart.
- Describe the structure of the lymphatic system and its role in the immune system and blood circulation
Key Points
- The lymph system is not a closed system. Lymph flows in one direction toward the heart.
- Lymph nodes are most densely distributed toward the center of the body, particularly around the neck, intestines, and armpits.
- Lymph vessels and nodes are not found within bone or nervous system tissue.
- Afferent lymph vessels flow into lymph nodes, while efferent lymph vessels flow out of them.
- Lymphatic capillaries are the sites of lymph fluid collection, and are distributed throughout most tissues of the body, particularly connective tissue.
Key Terms
- lymph : A colorless, watery, bodily fluid carried by the lymphatic system, consisting mainly of white blood cells.
- plasma : The straw-colored/pale-yellow liquid component of blood that normally holds the blood cells of whole blood in suspension.
- Efferent : A type of vessel that flows out of a structure, such as lymph vessels that leave the spleen or lymph nodes and arterioles that leave the kidney.
The lymphatic system is a circulatory system for lymphatic fluid, comprising a network of conduits called lymphatic vessels that carry the fluid in one direction toward the heart. Its functions include providing sites for certain immune system functions and facilitating plasma circulation in the cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system is composed of many different types of lymph vessels over a wide distribution throughout the body.
Lymph Node Distribution
Lymphatic System : The lymph nodes and lymph vessels in human beings. (Public Domain; NIH via Wikipedia )
Lymphatic vessels are most densely distributed near lymph nodes: bundles of lymphoid tissue that filter the lymph fluid of pathogens and abnormal molecules. Adaptive immune responses usually develop within lymphatic vessels. Large lymphatic vessels can be broadly characterized into two categories based on lymph node distribution.
- Afferent lymphatic vessels flow into a lymph node and carry unfiltered lymph fluid.
- Efferent lymphatic vessels flow out of a lymph node and carry filtered lymph fluid. Lymph vessels that leave the thymus or spleen (which lack afferent vessels) also fall into this category.
Lymph nodes are most densely distributed around the pharynx and neck, chest, armpits, groin, and around the intestines. Afferent and efferent lymph vessels are also most concentrated in these areas so they can filter lymph fluid close to the end of the lymphatic system, where fluid is returned into the cardiovascular system. Conversely, lymph nodes are not found in the areas of the upper central nervous system, where tissue drains into cerebrospinal fluid instead of lymph, though there are some lymph vessels in the meninges. There are few lymph nodes at the ends of the limbs. The efferent lymph vessels in the left and lower side of the body drain into the left subclavian vein through the thoracic duct, while the efferent lymph vessels of the right side of the body drain into the right subclavian vein through the right lymphatic duct.
Flow Through Lymph Vessels
The lymphatic vessels start with the collection of lymph fluid from the interstitial fluid. This fluid is mainly water from plasma that leaks into the intersitial space in the tissues due to pressure forces exerted by capillaries (hydrostatic pressure) or through osmotic forces from proteins (osmotic pressure). When the pressure for interstitial fluid in the interstitial space becomes large enough it leaks into lymph capillaries, which are the site for lymph fluid collection.
Like cardiovascular capillaries, lymph capillaries are well distributed throughout most of the body’s tissues, though they are mostly absent in bone or nervous system tissue. In comparison to cardiovascular capillaries, lymphatic capillaries are larger, distributed throughout connective tissues, and have a dead end that completely prevents backflow of lymph. That means the lymphatic system is an open system with linear flow, while the cardiovascular system is a closed system with true circular flow.
Lymph flows in one direction toward the heart. Lymph vessels become larger, with better developed smooth muscle and valves to keep lymph moving forward despite the low pressure and adventia to support the lymph vessels. As the lymph vessels become larger, their function changes from collecting fluid from the tissues to propelling fluid forward. Lymph nodes found closer to the heart filter lymph fluid before it is returned to venous circulation through one of the two lymph ducts.


4.5: Music of George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
George Frideric Handel was one of the superstars of the late Baroque period He was born the same year as one of our other Baroque superstars, Johann Sebastian Bach, not more than 150 miles away in Halle, Germany. His father was an attorney and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps, but Handel decided that he wanted to be a musician instead. With the help of a local nobleman, he persuaded his father to agree. After learning the basics of composition, Handel journeyed to Italy to learn to write opera. Italy, after all, was the home of opera, and opera was the most popular musical entertainment of the day. After writing a few operas, he took a job in London, England, where Italian opera was very much the rage, eventually establishing his own opera company and producing scores of Italian operas, which were initially very well received by the English public. After a decade or so, however, Italian opera in England imploded. Several opera companies there each
competed for the public’s business. The divas who sang the main roles and whom the public bought their tickets to see demanded high salaries. In 1728, a librettist name John Gay and a composer named Johann Pepusch premiered a new sort of opera in London called ballad opera. It was sung entirely in English and its music was based on folk tunes known by most inhabitants of the British Isles. For the English public, the majority of whom had been attending Italian opera without understanding the language in which it was sung, English language opera was a big hit. Both Handel’s opera company and his competitors fought for financial stability, and Handel had to find other ways to make a profit. He hit on the idea of writing English oratorio.
Oratorio is sacred opera that is not staged. Like operas, they are relatively long works, often spanning over two hours when performed in entirety. Like op- era, oratorios are entirely sung to orchestral accompaniment. They feature recitatives, arias, and choruses, just like opera. Most oratorios also tell the story of an important character from the Christian Bible. But oratorios are not acted out. Historically-speaking, this is the reason that they exist. During the Baroque period at sacred times in the Christian church year such as Lent, stage entertainment was prohibited. The idea was that during Lent, individuals should be looking inward and preparing themselves for the death and resurrection of Christ, and attending plays and operas would distract from that. Nevertheless, individuals still wanted entertainment, hence, oratorios. These oratorios would be performed as concerts not in the church but because they were not acted out, they were perceived as not having a “detrimental” effect on the spiritual lives of those in the audience. The first oratorios were performed in Italy; then they spread elsewhere on the continent and to England.
Handel realized how powerful ballad opera, sung in English, had been for the general population and started writing oratorios but in the English language. He used the same music styles as he had in his operas, only including more choruses. In no time at all, his oratorios were being lauded as some of the most popular performances in London.
His most famous oratorio is entitled Messiah and was first performed in 1741. About the life of Christ, it was written for a benefit concert to be held in Dublin, Ireland. Atypically, his librettist, took the words for the oratorio straight from the King James Version of the Bible instead of putting the story into his own words.
Once in Ireland, Handel assembled solo singers as well as a chorus of musical am- ateurs to sing the many choruses he wrote for the oratorio. There it was popular, if not controversial. One of the soloists was a woman who was a famous actress. Some critics remarked that it was inappropriate for a woman who normally performed on the stage to be singing words from sacred scripture. Others objected to sacred scripture being sung in a concert instead of in church. Perhaps influenced by these opinions, Messiah was performed only a few times during the 1740s. Since the end of the eighteenth century, however, it has been performed more than al- most any other composition of classical music. While these issues may not seem controversial to us today, they remind us that people still disagree about how sa- cred texts should be used and about what sort music should be used to set them.
We’ve included three numbers from Handel’s Messiah as part of our discussion of this focus composition. We’ll first listen to a recitative entitled “Comfort Ye” that is directly followed by an aria entitled “Every Valley.” These two numbers are the second and third numbers in the oratorio. Then we’ll listen to the Hallelujah Chorus, the most famous number from the composition that falls at the end of the second of the three parts of the oratorio.
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Listening Guide For audio, go to: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDEi...ature=youtu.be Tenor Anthony Rolfe Johnson with The Monteverdi Choir and the English Ba- roque Soloists and John Eliot Gardiner, Conductor |
| Composer: George Frideric Handel |
| Composition: “Comfort Ye” and “Every Valley” from Messiah |
| Date: 1741 |
| Genre: accompanied recitative and aria from an oratorio |
| Form: accompanied recitative—through composed; aria—binary form AA’ |
| Nature of Text: English language libretto quoting the Bible |
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Performing Forces: solo tenor and orchestra |
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What we want you to remember about this composition:
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Other things to listen for:
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Accompanied Recitative: “Comfort Ye” |
| Timing | Performing Forces, Melody, and Texture | Text and Form |
| 0:00 |
Reduced orchestra playing pia- no repeated notes |
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0:13 |
Mostly stepwise, conjunct sung melody;
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Vocalist & light orchestral ac- companiment: “Comfort Ye my people” |
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0:27 |
Orchestra and vocalist alternate phrases until the recitative ends |
Vocalist and light orchestral accompaniment: Comfort ye
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| Aria: “Every Valley” |
| Timing | Performing Forces, Melody, and Texture | Text and Form |
| 2:22 | Repeated motives; starts loud, ends with an echo | Orchestra plays ritornello |
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2:39 |
Soloist presents melodic phrase first heard in the ritornello and the orchestra echoes this phrase |
Tenor and orchestra: Every valley shall be exalted |
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2:52 |
Long melisma on the word exalt- ed...repeats High note on mountain and low note on “low” |
Tenor and orchestra: Shall be exalted And every mountain and hill made low |
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3:17 |
Repeated oscillation between two notes to represent crookedness; then one note is sustained on the word straight. |
Tenor and orchestra: The crooked straight |
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3:23 |
Repeated oscillation between two notes to represent roughness; then one note is sustained on the word plain. |
Tenor and orchestra: And the rough places plain |
| 3:38 | Melismatic descending sequence on the word “Plain” | Continued |
| 3:53 |
Goes back to the beginning, but with even more ornamentation from the melismas |
Tenor and Orchestra: “Every valley shall be exalted” (Repeti- tion of text and music) |
| 5:10 | Repeats the music of the ritornello one final time | Orchestra: ritornello |
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Listening Guide For audio, go to: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptBZ...ature=youtu.be Performed by English Baroque Soloists and Monteverdi Choir, Conducted by John Eliot Gardiner |
| Composer: George Frideric Handel |
| Composition: “Hallelujah” from Messiah |
| Date: 1741 |
| Genre: chorus from an oratorio |
| Form: sectional; sections delineated by texture changes |
| Nature of Text: English language libretto quoting the Bible |
| Performing Forces: solo tenor and orchestra |
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What we want you to remember about this composition:
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Other things to listen for:
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| Timing |
Performing Forces, Melody, and Texture |
Text and Form |
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0:00 |
Orchestra:
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0:09 |
Chorus + orchestra:
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Hallejulah |
| 0:26 |
Chorus + orchestra:
Dramatic shift to monophonic with the voices and orchestra performing the same melodic line at the same time. |
For the Lord God omnipotent reigneth |
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0:34 |
Chorus + orchestra: Homophonic texture, as before. |
Hallelujah |
| 0:38 | Chorus + orchestra: Homophonic texture, as before. |
For the Lord God omnipotent reigneth |
| 0:45 | Chorus + orchestra: Homophonic texture, as before. | Hallelujah |
| 0:49 |
Chorus + orchestra:
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For the Lord God omnipotent reigneth |
| 1:17 | Chorus + orchestra: Homophonic texture, as before. |
The Kingdom of this world is begun |
| 1:36 |
Chorus + orchestra:
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And he shall reign for ever and ever |
| 1:57 | Chorus + orchestra: Homophonic texture, as before. |
King of Kings |
| 2:01 | Chorus + orchestra: Homophonic texture, as before. |
Forever, and ever hallelujah hallelujah |
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2:05 |
Chorus + orchestra: Each entrance is sequenced higher; the women sing the monophonic repeated melody motive Monophony alternating with homophony |
And Lord of Lords...Repeated alternation of the monophonic king of kings and lord of lords with homophonic for ever and ever |
| 2:36 | Chorus + orchestra: Homophonic texture |
King of kings and lord of lords |
| 2:40 | Chorus + orchestra: Polyphonic texture (with some imitation) | And he shall reign for ever and ever |
| 2:52 |
Chorus + orchestra: The alternation of monophonic and homophonic textures. |
King of kings and lord of lords alternating with “for ever and ever” |
| 3:01 | Chorus + orchestra: Mostly homophonic |
And he shall reign...Hallelujah |
Focus Composition:
Movements from Handel’s Water Music Suite
Although Handel is perhaps best known today for his operas and oratorios, he also wrote a lot instrumental music, from concertos like Vivaldi wrote to a kind of music called the suite. Suites were compositions having many contrasting movements. The idea was to provide diverse music
in one composition that might be interesting for playing and listening. They could be written for solo instruments such as the harpsichord or for orchestral forces, in which case we call them orchestral suites. They often began with movements called overtures and modeled after the overtures played before operas. Then they typically consisted of
stylized dance
movements. By stylized dance, we
mean a piece of music that sounds like a dance but that was not designed for dancing. In other words, a stylized dance uses the distinct characteristics of a dance and would be recognized as sounding like that dance but might be too long or too complicated to be danced to.
Dancing was very popular in the Baroque period, as it had been in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. We have several dancing text- books from the Baroque period that mapped out the choreography for each dance. Some of the most popular dances included the saraband, gigue, minuet, and bourée. The saraband was a slow dance in triple meter, whereas the gigue (or jig) was a very fast dance with triple subdivisions of the beats. The minuet was also in triple time but danced at a much more stately tempo. The bourrée, on the other hand, was danced at a much faster tempo, and always in duple meter.
When King George I asked Handel to compose music for an evening’s diver- sion, the suite was the genre to which Handel turned. This composition was for an event that started at 8pm on Wednesday the seventeenth of July, 1717. King George I and his noble guests would launch a barge ride up the Thames River to Chelsea. After disembarking and spending some time on shore, they re-boarded at 11pm and returned via the river to Whitehall Palace, from whence they came. A contem- porary newspaper remarked that the king and his guests occupied one barge while another held about fifty musicians and reported that the king liked the music so much that he asked it to be repeated three times.
The bourée, as noted above, is fast and in duple time. The minuet is in a triple. Many of the movements that were played for the occasion were written down and eventually published as three suites of music, each in a different key. You have two stylized dance movements from one of these suites here, a bourée and a minuet. We do not know with any certainty in what order these movements were played or even exact- ly who played them on that evening in 1717, but when the music was published in the late eighteenth century, it was set for two trumpets, two horns, two oboes, first violins, second violins, violas, and a basso continuo, which included a bas- soon, cello(s), and harpsichord.
The bourée, as noted above, is fast and in duple time. The minuet is in a triple meter and taken at a more moderate tempo. They use repeated strains or sections of melodies based on repeated motives. As written in the score, as well as interpreted today in the referenced recording, different sections of the orchestra—the strings, woodwinds, and sometimes brass instruments—each get a time to shine, providing diverse timbres and thus musical interest. Both are good examples of binary form.
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Listening Guide For audio, go to: www.youtube.com/watch?v=Se54...ature=youtu.be The English Concert, on period instruments. Trevor Pinnock, conductor. [Bourée at 8:26] |
| Composer: George Frideric Handel |
| Composition: Bourée from Water Music |
| Date: 1717 |
| Genre: stylized dance movement from a suite |
| Form: Binary form, AABB, performed here three times; B is twice as long as A |
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Performing Forces: Baroque orchestra: according to the musical score, 2 trumpets, 2 horns, 2 oboes, 1 bassoons, 1st violins, 2nd violins, violas, cello, and basso continuo (the cellos play the same music as the bassoon) |
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What we want you to remember about this composition:
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Other things to listen for:
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| Timing |
Performing Forces, Melody, and Texture |
Text and Form |
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8:26 |
Strings, basso continuo, trumpet Short phrase A of four measures, repeated |
A, repeated |
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8:36 |
Same instruments play an answer phrase B of eight measures with descending motivic sequences |
B |
| 8:52 |
Flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpets, strings
Play the same A phrase as above |
A |
| 8:44 |
Repeated |
A |
| 9:01 | Same instruments play the B phrase | B |
| 9:09 | Repeated | B |
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9:17 |
Strings, trumpets, flute, oboe bas- soon, and basso continuo play the A phrase. |
A, repeated |
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9:26 |
Same instruments play the B phrase. | B |
| 9:34 | Repeated | B |
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Listening Guide For audio, go to: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Se54...ature=youtu.be The English Concert, on period instruments. Trevor Pinnock, conductor. |
| Composer: George Frideric Handel |
| Composition: Minuet from Water Music |
| Date: 1717 |
| Genre: Stylized dance from a suite |
| Form: AA BB, to be performed three times according to the score |
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Performing Forces: Baroque orchestral: according to the musical score, 2 trumpets, 2 horns, 2 oboes, 1 bassoons, 1st violins, 2nd violins, violas, cello, and basso continuo (the cellos play the same music as the bassoon) |
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What we want you to remember about this composition:
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Other things to listen for:
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Timing |
Performing Forces, Melody, and Texture |
Text and Form |
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9:49 |
Strings, trumpets: triple meter in a major key;
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A |
| 9:59 | Repeated | A |
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10:11 |
Starts with repeated notes in just strings, oboes, and bassoon and ascends and then the trumpets and horns join: melody ascends and descends, mostly by step; trumpet becomes more prominent new phrases with a three-note motive that repeatedly ascends and then descends by step |
B |
| 10:33 |
As with B above |
B |
| 10:55 |
Flute, oboes, bassoons, horns, trumpets, basso continuo including cello play the opening strain |
A |
| 11:07 |
Flute, oboes, bassoons, horns, trumpets, basso continuo including cello play the opening strain |
A |
| 11:18 |
First just double reeds, then adding horns |
A |
| 11:39 |
Repeated |
B |
| 12:02 |
Full orchestra |
A |
| 12:13 |
Repeated |
A |
| 12:24 |
First strings and then the full orchestra |
B |
| 12:46 | First strings and then the full orchestra | B |


17.2: Centroids of Areas via Integration
The centroid of an area can be thought of as the geometric center of that area. The location of the centroid is often denoted with a \(C\) with the coordinates being \((\bar{x}\), \(\bar{y})\), denoting that they are the average \(x\) and \(y\) coordinate for the area. If an area was represented as a thin, uniform plate, then the centroid would be the same as the center of mass for this thin plate.
Centroids of areas are useful for a number of situations in the mechanics course sequence, including in the analysis of distributed forces, the bending in beams, and torsion in shafts, and as an intermediate step in determining moments of inertia.
The location of centroids for a variety of common shapes can simply be looked up in tables, such as this table for 2D centroids and this table for 3D centroids. However, we will often need to determine the centroid of other shapes; to do this, we will generally use one of two methods.
- We can use the first moment integral to determine the centroid location.
- We can use the method of composite parts along with centroid tables to determine the centroid location.
On this page we will only discuss the first method, as the method of composite parts is discussed in a later section. The tables used in the method of composite parts, however, are derived via the first moment integral, so both methods ultimately rely on first moment integrals.
Finding the Centroid via the First Moment Integral
When we find the centroid of a two-dimensional shape, we will be looking for both an \(x\) and a \(y\) coordinate, represented as \(\bar{x}\) and \(\bar{y}\) respectively. Collectively, this \((\bar{x}, \bar{y}\) coordinate is the centroid of the shape.
To find the average \(x\)-coordinate of a shape (\(\bar{x}\)), we will essentially break the shape into a large number of very small and equally sized areas, and find the average \(x\)-coordinate of these areas. To do this sum of an infinite number of very small things, we will use integration. Specifically, we will take the first rectangular area moment integral along the \(x\)-axis, and then divide that integral by the total area to find the average coordinate. We can do something similar along the \(y\)-axis to find our \(\bar{y}\) value. Writing all of this out, we have the equations below.
\[ C = ( \bar{x}, \bar{y}) \]
\begin{align} \bar{x} &= \dfrac{ \displaystyle\int_{A} (dA*x)}{A} \\[4pt] \bar{y} &= \dfrac{ \displaystyle\int_{A} (dA*y)}{A} \end{align}
Next let's discuss what the variable \(dA\) represents and how we integrate it over the area. The variable \(dA\) is the rate of change in area as we move in a particular direction. For \(\bar{x}\) we will be moving along the \(x\)-axis, and for \(\bar{y}\) we will be moving along the \(y\)-axis in these integrals.
As we move along the \(x\)-axis of a shape from its leftmost point to its rightmost point, the rate of change of the area at any instant in time will be equal to the height of the shape that point times the rate at which we are moving along the axis (\(dx\)). Because the height of the shape will change with position, we do not use any one value, but instead must come up with an equation that describes the height at any given value of x. We will then multiply this \(dA\) equation by the variable \(x\) (to make it a moment integral), and integrate that equation from the leftmost \(x\) position of the shape (\(x_{min}\)) to the rightmost \(x\) position of the shape (\(x_{max}\)).
To find the \(y\) coordinate of the of the centroid, we have a similar process, but because we are moving along the \(y\)-axis, the value \(dA\) is the equation describing the width of the shape times the rate at which we are moving along the \(y\) axis (\(dy\)). We then take this \(dA\) equation and multiply it by \(y\) to make it a moment integral. We will integrate this equation from the \(y\) position of the bottommost point on the shape (\(y_{min}\)) to the \(y\) position of the topmost point on the shape (\(y_{max}\)).
Using the first moment integral and the equations shown above, we can theoretically find the centroid of any shape as long as we can write out equations to describe the height and width at any \(x\) or \(y\) value respectively. For more complex shapes, however, determining these equations and then integrating these equations can become very time-consuming. That is why most of the time, engineers will instead use the method of composite parts or computer tools.
Using Symmetry as a Shortcut
Shape symmetry can provide a shortcut in many centroid calculations. Remember that the centroid is located at the average \(x\) and \(y\) coordinate for all the points in the shape. If the shape has a line of symmetry, that means each point on one side of the line must have an equivalent point on the other side of the line. This means that the average value (AKA the centroid) must lie along any axis of symmetry. If the shape has more than one axis of symmetry, then the centroid must exist at the intersection of the two axes of symmetry.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Find the \(x\) and \(y\) coordinates of the centroid of the shape shown below.
- Solution:
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Find the \(x\) and \(y\) coordinates of the centroid of the shape shown below.
- Solution:
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Find the \(x\) and \(y\) coordinates of the centroid of the shape shown below.
- Solution:


3.4: Reading- Targeting Strategies and the Marketing Mix
Using the Marketing Mix to Reach Target Segments
Once target segments are identified, the marketing manager selects a targeting strategy that will be the best fit for reaching them. Targeted marketing enables the marketing and sales teams to customize their message to the targeted group(s) of consumers in a focused manner. The targeting strategy is where the marketing mix comes together to create the right offer and marketing approach for each target segment. A summary of common targeting strategies is provided in the table below.
| Strategy | Target Market | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Mass marketing | Everybody everywhere | Target |
| Differentiated marketing | Large groups within the total market | Costco, Sam’s Club |
| Niche marketing | High penetration within smaller, specialized segments | Trader Joe’s, Whole Foods |
| Micromarketing | Individual customers or localized microsegments | Groupon |
Mass Marketing
Mass marketing, also called undifferentiated marketing , involves marketing to the entire market the same way. Mass marketing effectively ignores segmentation and instead generates a single offer and marketing mix for everyone. The market is treated as a homogeneous aggregate. Mass marketing aims to reach the largest audience possible, and exposure to the product is maximized. In theory, this would directly correlate with a larger number of sales or buy-in to the product.
Mass marketing tries to spread a marketing message to anyone and everyone willing to listen. Communication tends to be less personal, as evidenced by common mass-marketing tactics: national television, radio and print advertising campaigns; nationally focused coupons; nationally focused point-of-purchase displays. The success of mass-marketing depends on whether it is possible to reach enough people, through mass-communication techniques and one universal product offer, to keep them interested in the product and make the strategy worthwhile. While mass-marketing tactics tend to be costly because they operate on a large scale, this approach yields efficiencies and cost savings for companies because it requires the marketing team to execute only one product offer and marketing mix.
For certain types of widely consumed items (e.g., gasoline, soft drinks, white bread), the undifferentiated market approach makes the most sense. For example, toothpaste (such as the brands Crest and Colgate) isn’t made specially for one consumer segment, and it is sold in huge quantities. The manufacturer’s goal is to get more people to select and buy their particular brand over another when they come to the point of purchase. Walk through any supermarket, and you will observe hundreds of grocery products, especially generic items, that are perceived as nearly identical by the consumer and are treated as such by the producer. Many mass-marketed items are considered staple or “commodity” items. People buy new ones when the old ones wear out or are used up, and mass-marketed brand loyalty might be the primary driver when they decide which replacement product to purchase.
Differentiated Marketing
A differentiated marketing strategy is one in which the company decides to provide separate offerings to each different market segment that it targets. It is also called multisegment marketing. Each segment is targeted in a particular way, as the company provides unique benefits to different segments. The goal is to help the company increase sales and market share across each segment it targets. Proctor and Gamble, for example, segments some of its markets by gender, and it has separate product offerings and marketing plans for each: Secret-brand deodorant for women, and Rogaine (a treatment for hair loss) for men. [1]
When it is successful, differentiated marketing can create a very strong, entrenched market presence that is difficult for competitors to displace because of consumers’ strong affinity for products and offers that meet the unique needs of their segment. A differentiated strategy can be a smart approach for new companies that enter a market and lure customers away from established players to capture share in a large overall market. Often, established companies become vulnerable to new competitors because they don’t give sufficient attention to the perfect marketing mix for any given market segment.
However, differentiated marketing is also very expensive. It carries higher costs for the company because it requires the development of unique products to fit each target segment. Likewise, each unique product and market segment requires its own marketing plans and execution: unique messages, campaigns, and promotional tactics and investments. Costs can add up quickly, especially if you are targeting a lot of unique market segments.
For a large company such as Kraft, the cost of this kind of marketing is well worth it, since its products are sold all over the world. An example of its differentiated marketing strategy are the many surprising variations of the famous Oreo cookie developed for the Chinese market. Consumers there can enjoy Oreos with cream flavors such as green-tea ice cream, raspberry-blueberry, mango-orange, and grape-peach. All of these Oreo formulations have been heavily market tested and are based on the unique preferences of Chinese consumers. [2]
Niche Marketing
Niche marketing (also called concentrated marketing) is a strategy that targets only one or a few very defined and specific segments of the consumer population. The goal is to achieve high penetration among the narrowly defined target segments. For example, the manufacturer of Rolex watches has chosen to concentrate on only the luxury segment of the watch market.
An organization that adopts a niche strategy gains an advantage by focusing all efforts on only one or a small handful of segments. All of their market analysis, product development, marketing strategy, and tactics concentrate on serving that select part of the market. When they do it well, this approach can provide a differential advantage over other organizations that don’t concentrate all their efforts on the “niche” segment(s). Niche targeting is particularly effective for small companies with limited resources, as it does not require the use of mass production, mass distribution, or mass advertising. When a company is highly successful in desirable “niche” market segments, it can be very profitable.
The primary disadvantage of niche marketing is that it makes companies vulnerable to demand in the narrow market segments they serve. As long as demand is robust, the organization’s financial position will be strong. But if something changes and demand drops off, the company has nothing to cushion it from financial hardship. Since the company has focused all efforts on one market (essentially putting all their eggs in one basket), the firm is always somewhat at risk. Such companies are especially vulnerable to small shifts in population or consumer tastes, which can greatly affect their position (for better or for worse). Large competitors with deeper pockets may choose to enter a market and use their size and resources to put smaller, niche players out of business. To insulate themselves from this type of risk, many companies pursing a niche strategy may target multiple segments.
Luxury-goods providers are a great illustration of the challenges of the niche marketing strategy. When economic recessions occur, luxury-goods providers like Rolex, Chanel, and Armani routinely struggle financially because their narrow segment of “luxury” consumers has less disposable income. When fickle consumer tastes shift from Ralph Lauren to Dolce & Gabanna to Prada (and back again), the company’s profitability can hang in the balance.
Micromarketing
Micromarketing is a targeting strategy that focuses even more narrowly than niche marketing. It caters to the needs of individuals (“individual marketing”) or very small segments in a targeted geography (“local marketing”). Micromarketing can be very powerful by giving consumers exactly what they want, when they want it. However, to achieve large-scale success with this approach, companies must figure out how to meet highly individualized needs efficiently and profitably.
Individual marketing is sometimes referred to as “mass customization” or “one-to-one marketing.” With this approach, companies offer consumers a product created to their individual specifications. For example, Build-A-Bear Workshop invites children to create their own custom stuffed animals. A child can select the type of animal, from teddy bear to unicorn, along with color, size, clothing, and other accessories. Creators of handmade goods on Etsy.com take orders from buyers who may request variations on the individually crafted jewelry, clothing, toys, and other items displayed on the Web site. In the following video, Etsty CEO, Chad Dickerson, explains what makes the company’s approach unique.
Achieving wide-scale success with individual marketing requires product providers to develop production strategies and an entire marketing mix that can ramp up as demand grows. Frequently this involves offering a baseline product with parameters customers can customize to fit their needs. For example, you can order custom M&M candies , selecting colors, packaging, and even custom-printed with words or images you select. The advent of digital print technologies has also made mass customization a viable targeting strategy for companies like Vistaprint and Sticker Mule. They provide custom print materials, stickers, decals and other printed products for businesses and individuals using designs created and uploaded by customers. Their primary messaging emphasizes custom products designed by and for individual customers, matching their unique needs and preferences.
Local marketing is a targeting strategy focused expressly on a small, clearly defined neighborhood or geographic area. Organizations using this technique strive to generate a strong local presence, and targets may include any person or organization within that small area.
Groupon and Amazon Local are excellent examples of local marketing. Both online services partner with local businesses to promote timely offers and special pricing for individuals living in a designated geographic area. Limited-time and limited-quantity deals may include restaurant meals, spa treatments, performances, recreational activities, lessons, hotel accommodations, and a wide variety of other local area products and services. These local marketing companies earn revenue when consumers purchase and redeem the special offers in their neighborhood or city. Another example are farm cooperatives and CSAs (community-supported agriculture shares), which virtually always use a local marketing strategy. They market locally grown produce and farm-fresh goods to people residing in the immediate community, and their ongoing goal is to increase local supply and demand for healthy, local, farm-fresh food and produce.
Applying the Marketing Mix to Target Segments
With any of the strategies described above, the marketing team must come together to develop a marketing mix tailored to the needs of each segment being targeted. This marketing mix is the unique combination of product, promotion, place, and price designed expressly to fit a designated market segment.
This course will explore each element of the marketing mix in further detail in other modules. However, the following questions can help you start down the path toward shaping the marketing mix to fit your target segments.
Product
- What would make the ideal product for your target segment?
- What special features or capabilities are critical for this segment?
- What unique problems does your product help this segment solve?
Promotion
- What are the best ways to get your target segment’s attention?
- What do you want this segment to remember about your product?
Place / Distribution
- Where does this segment look or shop for your product?
- What is the best way to get your product to your target customers?
Price
- What price(s) are your target customers willing to pay for your product?
- How much is too expensive? How much is too cheap?
As you consider each of these questions, you generate ideas for altering the marketing mix to appeal to your target segment.
Let’s see how this works in practice. A university alumni organization embarks on a fund-raising campaign to generate funding for the strategic expansion of new and existing university programs. The baseline “product” this organization sells is charitable giving: an affiliation with the university, a tax deductible charitable donation, and the honor of contributing to a worthy philanthropic cause.
For the coming year, the alumni organization decides to use a niche marketing strategy. Specifically, it will target alumni with significant upcoming reunions or years since graduation: 5 years, 10 years, 15 years, 20 years, 25 years, 30 years, and so forth. The organization chooses to tailor the marketing mix as follows:
- Product: The ideal product for these alumni isn’t just a generic philanthropic donation. Instead, it is a giving opportunity that reflects their significant anniversary. For this reason, the alumni organization introduces a new “product” or type of donation opportunity: a class legacy fund that encourages alumni to contribute with other classmates to a common fund. When they do, they can select the areas they want their donation to benefit, such as scholarships, library, technology, and endowed professorship, etc.
- Promotion: Getting the attention of busy alumni scattered across the world is a challenge. People are most likely to pay attention when a message is coming from someone they know personally, and so the alumni organization decides to capitalize on classmate relationships. It recruits several well-connected people from each class to post on social media and send email messages to fellow classmates about an upcoming reunion as well as the legacy-fund donation opportunity. The email message asks people to share with other former classmates who may not have heard about the reunion and class legacy fund. Hopefully, this message begins to go viral, working through pre-existing networks to spread the word. The organization also sends a letter about the class legacy fund to older alumni who are less likely to be active with email or digital technology.
- Place/Distribution: As people learn about the class legacy fund, the alumni organization wants to make sure the donation opportunity is easy for anyone to act on. For this reason, they offer a variety of different ways to contribute: mail a check; dial a phone number; donate on a Web site using PayPal or a credit card; donate via phone using a mobile app. People can even come to the annual reunion activities and contribute to the legacy fund in person.
- Price: For a voluntary donation, “price” can be tricky. On one hand, the alumni organization wants to encourage donations of any size to the class legacy funds, no matter how small. On the other hand, it also wants to encourage alumni to consider making larger donations when possible. Based on publicly available income data, the alumni organization recognizes that most recent graduates have lower average salaries and disposable income compared to those who have been working their fields for a decade or more. Acting on this information, it adjusts the range of “suggested donation” levels for each class. Recent alumni marking a 5-year anniversary are invited to contribute between $25 and $250. Alumni marking 10- and 15-year anniversaries are invited to contribute between $50 and $500 to class legacy funds. Alumni with 20 or more years see suggested donation amounts ranging from $150 to $2,500 or more.
Thoughtful consideration of the four Ps leads to a successful launch of the alumni organization’s class legacy funds. Because the alumni organization has tailored the product, promotional strategy, placement, and pricing to the interests of the target segments, the effort is much more successful than the all-purpose, generic, “please donate to your alumni organization” campaign used in the past. In this example, wise targeting strategy works hand-in-hand with the marketing mix to yield better results.
- Markgraf, Bert. “Real-World Examples of Effective Market Segmentation.” Small Business - Chron.com. Chron.com, November 21, 2017. http://smallbusiness.chron.com/realworld-examples-effective-market-segmentation-60195.html . ↵
- Eric Jou,Jou, Eric. “The Wonderfully Weird World Of Chinese Oreos.” Kotaku. Kotaku, October 1, 2012. http://kotaku.com/5947767/the-wonderfully-weird-world-of-chinese-oreos . ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Micromarketing and Applying the Marketing Mix to Target Segments. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Photo: Harvard Kennedy School of 1995 Class Reunion. Authored by : Julie Curtis. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Chapter 1, Introducing Marketing, from Introducing Marketing, . Authored by : John Burnett. Provided by : Global Text. Located at : solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf.. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Concentrated Marketing, from Marketing. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Selecting Target Markets, from Marketing. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Ralph Lauren--London. Authored by : thinkretail. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/28964535@N08/4389940775/ . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
- Toothbrush in a White Bowl with Toothpaste. Authored by : Marco Verch Professional Photographer and Speaker. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/DedTib . License : CC BY: Attribution
- CSA Box, Week of August 25 - 31. Provided by : Suzie's Farm. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/suziesfarm/15031130256/ . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives


3: Principles of Gas Chromatography
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- 3.2: High Performance Liquid chromatography
- High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate the components in a mixture, and to identify and quantify each component. It was initially discovered as an analytical technique in the early twentieth century and was first used to separate colored compounds. The word chromatography means color writing.
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- 3.3: Basic Principles of Supercritical Fluid Chromatography and Supercrtical Fluid Extraction
- The discovery of supercritical fluids led to novel analytical applications in the fields of chromatography and extraction known as supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). Supercritical fluid chromatography is accepted as a column chromatography methods along with gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
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- 3.4: Supercritical Fluid Chromatography
- A popular and powerful tool in the chemical world, chromatography separates mixtures based on chemical properties – even some than were previously thought inseparable. It combines a multitude of pieces, concepts, and chemicals to form an instrument suited to specific separation. One form of chromatography that is often overlooked is that of supercritical fluid chromatography.
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- 3.5: Ion Chromatography
- Ion Chromatography is a method of separating ions based on their distinct retention rates in a given solid phase packing material. Given different retention rates for two anions or two cations, the elution time of each ion will differ, allowing for detection and separation of one ion before the other.
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- 3.6: Capillary Electrophoresis
- Capillary electrophoresis (CE) encompasses a family of electrokinetic separation techniques that uses an applied electric field to separate out analytes based on their charge and size. The basic principle is hinged upon that of electrophoresis, which is the motion of particles relative to a fluid (electrolyte) under the influence of an electric field.
Thumbnail: A gas chromatography oven, open to show a capillary column. (CC BY-SA 4.0; Polimerek )


1.5: Types of Vaccines
Not all vaccines are the same. The way in which the body responds to a vaccine depends on the type of vaccine being administered. It is important for health professionals to understand the type of vaccines being administered and how it induces an immune response. This section includes descriptions of different types of vaccines.
Live-attenuated Vaccines
Live-attenuated vaccines induce an immune response that mimics a natural infection which often creates an effective and longer-lasting immunity. Live-attenuated vaccines use a weakened form of the infectious agent (virus or bacteria) to produce an immune response without causing illness. In general, clients who receive these vaccines can have lifetime protection after one or two doses.
Before administering live-attenuated vaccines, health professionals need to consider the following:
- Clients with immunocompromising diseases or conditions.
- Clients who take immunosuppressant agents.
- Clients for whom immunity is uncertain.
- Clients who are or may be pregnant.
Individuals with immune deficiency, such as those on immunosuppressant agents or with underlying conditions such as uncontrolled HIV, have a weakened immune system and can get very sick with live-attenuated vaccines. In general, people who are undergoing chemotherapy, who are severely immunocompromised, or who have an uncertain immune status should not receive live vaccines because of the risk of disease caused by vaccine strains. Health professionals should consult the most responsible provider before vaccination. Health professionals should refer to the Vaccination of Specific Population of the Canada Immunization Guide for specific information.
Screening Questions for Immunizing with Live Vaccines
1. Does the vaccine recipient have any immunocompromising conditions, or have they taken any medications in the past three months that cause immunosuppression, including corticosteroids ?
2. If giving a live vaccine to young child (note: live vaccines are not given to infants (<12 months of age), consider:
- Is there a known or suspected family history of congenital immunodeficiency disorder, HIV infection, or a history of failure to thrive AND recurrent serious infections?
3. Has the vaccine recipient received any other live vaccines in the past four weeks?
4. Has the vaccine recipient received any transfusions of blood or blood products in the last year?
Inactivated/Killed Vaccines
Inactivated vaccines , sometimes referred to as killed vaccines, are composed of either whole or partial pathogens that are not alive and therefore cannot replicate . Pathogens become inactivated through exposure to heat, chemicals, and other purification processes. These types of vaccines prevent diseases caused by bacteria and viruses.
In this case, inactivated/killed vaccines refer to whole pathogen vaccines. Inactivated vaccines use the killed version of the pathogen and its antigens to induce an immune response. Typically, these vaccines provide immune protection that is not as effective as live-attenuated vaccines and often require multiple doses over time in order to sustain immunity as the antibody titers diminish. Generally, the first dose of an inactivated vaccine serves to prime the immune system, while protective immunity (antibody) is provided after the second or third dose. Inactivated vaccines are safer for use in immunocompromised individuals since the vaccine contains inactivated or killed pathogens.
Toxoid (inactivated toxin) Vaccines
Toxoid vaccines are used to prevent diseases caused by bacteria. The vaccine uses a toxin (rendered harmless) made by the pathogen that causes the disease. As a result, the body produces an immune response targeted to the toxin rather than the pathogen itself. It is important to note that toxins are typically responsible for symptoms of a disease, such that exposure to the toxin can elicit immunity.
Toxoid vaccines are safe because they cannot cause the disease . Toxoid vaccines typically require booster vaccinations to sustain immunity.
Subunit Vaccines: Recombinant, Polysaccharide and Conjugate Vaccines
Subunit vaccines use a piece of the pathogen , such as its protein, sugar, or capsid , to provoke an immune response. These vaccines elicit a strong and targeted response to a part of the pathogen and are typically suitable for anyone, including immunocompromised individuals. For sustained immunity, clients typically need multiple doses of vaccine.
While recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate are all forms of subunit inactivated vaccines, each target a particular molecular structure. Polysaccharide vaccines consist of long-chained sugar molecules attached to the surface of bacteria such as pneumococcus and meningococcus. Recombinant vaccines are genetically engineered vaccines, whereby pathogenic agents have been cloned, expressed, and purified into a vaccine.
There are several different types of vaccines available, each with a different set of properties and uses. Scientific advances and new technology will continue to change and improve the vaccine landscape. Table 1.1. offers examples of some of the vaccines associated with the various vaccine types.
Table 1.1: Vaccine Types
| Vaccine type | Vaccines |
|
Live-attenuated
|
Measles, mumps, rubella (combined vaccine) Varicella (chickenpox), Zoster (shingles) Influenza (nasal spray) Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) Rotavirus Yellow fever
|
|
Inactivated/Killed
|
Polio (IPV) Hepatitis A Rabies
|
|
Toxoid (inactivated toxin)
|
Diphtheria Tetanus
|
|
Subunit/Conjugate
|
Hepatitis B Influenza (injection) Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib) Human papillomavirus (HPV) Pertussis Pneumococcal Meningococcal Zoster (shingles)
|
Points of Consideration
The body produces a greater immune response the more analogous the vaccine is to the original disease-causing pathogen. Live-attenuated vaccines more closely resemble their pathogen, making ongoing vaccinations less likely to achieve sustained immunity. Most live-attenuated vaccines in Canada are viral; however, there are two bacterial attenuated vaccines (typhoid and tuberculosis) that are available under special circumstances.
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/immunizations/?p=34
Attribution Statement
Content in this section was adapted, with editorial changes, from Page 8: Canadian Immunization Guide: Part 1 – Key Immunization Information by the Government of Canada and is reproduced under non-commercial conditions.
Content in Table 1.1 was adapted, with editorial changes, from https://www.vaccines.gov , which is in the public domain.


11.6: Curvature
In a letter from 1824 Gauss writes:
The assumption that the sum of the three angles is less than π leads to a curious geometry, quite different from ours but completely consistent, which I have developed to my en- tire satisfaction, so that I can solve every problem in it with the exception of a determination of a constant, which cannot be designated a priori. The greater one takes this constant, the nearer one comes to Euclidean geometry, and when it is chosen indefinitely large the two coincide. The theorems of this geometry appear to be paradoxical and, to the uninitiated, absurd; but calm, steady reflection reveals that they contain nothing at all impossible. For example, the three angles of a triangle become as small as one wishes, if only the sides are taken large enuf; yet the area of the triangle can never exceed a definite limit, regardless how great the sides are taken, nor indeed can it ever reach it.
In modern terminology, the constant that Gauss mentions, can be expressed as \(1/\sqrt{-k}\), where \(k \le 0\), is the so-called curvature of the neutral plane, which we are about to introduce.
The identity in Exercise 11.4.1 suggests that the defect of a triangle should be proportional to its area. (The area in the neutral plane is discussed briefly in the end of Chapter 20, but the reader could also refer to an intuitive understanding of area measurement.)
In fact, for any neutral plane, there is a nonpositive real number \(k\) such that
\(k \cdot \text{area} (\triangle ABC) + \text{defect} (\triangle ABC) = 0\)
for any \(\triangle ABC\). This number \(k\) is called the curvature of the plane.
For example, by Theorem 7.4.1 , the Euclidean plane has zero curvature.
By Theorem 11.3.1 , the curvature of any neutral plane is nonpositive.
It turns out that up to isometry, the neutral plane is characterized by its curvature; that is, two neutral planes are isometric if and only if they have the same curvature.
In the next chapter, we will construct a hyperbolic plane; this is, an example of neutral plane with curvature \(k = -1\).
Any neutral planes, distinct from Euclidean, can be obtained by scaling the metric on the hyperbolic plane. Indeed, if we scale the metric by a positive factor \(c\), the area changes by factor \(c^2\), while the defect stays the same. Therefore, taking \(c = \sqrt{-k}\), we can get the neutral plane of the given curvature \(k < 0\). In other words, all the non-Euclidean neutral planes become identical if we use \(r = 1/\sqrt{-k}\) as the unit of length.
In Chapter 16, we discuss spherical geometry. Altho spheres are not neutral planes, the spherical geometry is a close relative of Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries.
Nondegenerate spherical triangles have negative defects. Moreover, if \(R\) is the radius of the sphere, then
\(\dfrac{1}{R^2} \cdot \text{area} (\triangle ABC) + \text{defect} (\triangle ABC) = 0\)
for any spherical triangle \(ABC\). In other words, the sphere of the radius \(R\) has the curvature \(k = \dfrac{1}{R^2}\).


4.2: Officer Roles
Many jurisdictions combine the role of probation officer and parole officer into a single job description. In Gagnon v. Scarpelli (1973), the court had this to say of the duties of the such officers: "While the parole or probation officer recognizes his double duty to the welfare of his clients and to the safety of the general community, by and large concern for the client dominates his professional attitude. The parole agent ordinarily defines his role as representing his client's best interests as long as these do not constitute a threat to public safety." This statement suggests a dichotomy in the responsibility of parole (and probation) officers; these must look out for the best interest of the client as well as looking out for the best interest of the public. This fact frequently enters into politics. Liberals tend to focus on the treatment and rehabilitation of the offender, and conservatives focus more on the safety of the public and just deserts for the offender.
Pin It! Gagnon v. Scarpelli Case Study
Is a previously sentenced probationer entitled to a hearing when his probation is revoked? Gagnon v. Scarpelli decides this question
From the perspective of the parole officers, they must perform law enforcement duties that are designed to protect the public safety. These functions very much resemble the tasks of police officers. They are also officers of the court and are responsible for enforcing court orders. These orders often include such things as drug testing programs, drug treatment programs, alcohol treatment programs, and anger management programs.
Officers are often required to appear in court and give testimony regarding the activities of their clients. They frequently perform searches and seize evidence of criminal activity or technical violations. The courts often ask officers to make recommendations when violations do occur. Officers may recommend that violators be sent to prison or continue on probation or parole with modified conditions.
There is ambivalence about the role of probation and parole officers within the criminal justice community. This has to do with an artificial dichotomy, often being characterized as police work versus social work. The detection and punishment of law and technical violations are characterized as the law enforcement role. The rehabilitation and reintegration of the offender are regarded as the social work role. Officers tend to lean more heavily toward one of these objectives than the other. Some officers embrace the law enforcement perspective and seek strict compliance with the law and conditions of parole. Other officers view themselves more as counselors, helping the offender reform, and brokering community resources to help resolve problems. Which model a particular officer exemplifies has many influences. The officer's personal beliefs, the dominate culture of the local office, the policy dictates of agency heads, and legislative enactments driven by political philosophies all play a role in shaping the working personality of each officer. The most effective officers are likely to be hybrids that fall somewhere in between the two archetypes.