17.1: Biological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Death and Dying
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define death from a variety of perspectives
- Describe the dying process in physical and psychological terms
- Compare and contrast global differences in life expectancy and causes of death
- Describe the social dimensions of death and dying
- Compare and contrast various cultural perspectives on death and dying
Mateo wants to protect his cardiovascular health. Given the relatively early and sudden deaths from heart disease of his father, abuelo, and uncle, he suspects his family has a genetic vulnerability to this illness, but he wonders whether lifestyle factors such as stressful jobs, lack of exercise, and unhealthy diets might also be to blame. He wishes he had better contact with his extended family in Argentina. Maybe they’re doing something differently than his family in the United States and living longer as a result.
Mateo also worries about the process of dying. He doesn’t want to endure a long period of declining health, feeling helpless or being regarded as a diagnosis rather than a person. But he doesn’t want to die suddenly and without warning either, leaving his loved ones unprepared for that loss.
Many people share Mateo’s concerns about death and what it will look like, physically and psychosocially. What happens to our body when we die? How are dying people treated by others, and how do they feel about themselves? What are common causes of death? This section will address these questions.
Defining Death
Death is a physical event in which our bodies stop working, including the absence of breathing and a heartbeat. However, even this statement on describing death is overly simplistic. Our body is far more complex than this, composed of an intricate set of systems working together. These systems don’t all play an equal role in keeping us alive, but if something happens to one of them, it’s likely to affect the functioning of other systems and our body overall. For example, if our heart, lungs, and/or brain lose function, the other organs in our body may also start to fail. However, due to current medical science and advances, the failure of one organ does not guarantee that other systems of the body will inevitably and immediately lose functioning.
Medical professionals sometimes distinguish between clinical death , in which vital organs have stopped working but could be resuscitated, and biological death , in which these organs can’t be resuscitated (Parish et al., 2018). Depending on what caused the death, clinical death may occur before biological death. In cardiac arrest, for example, it may be possible to start the heart beating again. Or biological death may occur on its own: If a person is stabbed in the heart, the heart may sustain too much damage to be repaired.
But death isn’t just a physical event. It has psychological aspects, such as the way people cope with death, prepare and make decisions about end-of-life care, and express grief. Social aspects of death include the way dying people are treated and the cultural factors like religious and spiritual values and beliefs that affect people’s perceptions of dying and choices related to it. A researcher who studies the biological, psychological, and social aspects of death is called a thanatologist .
Biological Aspects of Death
The stethoscope was invented in 1819 by a French doctor named René Laënnec, but it wasn’t until 1846 that Eugène Bouchut, another French doctor, suggested that its ability to amplify the sound of a heartbeat could help establish that death had occurred and prevent premature burial (Panna, 2021). Thus, death was primarily defined as cardiopulmonary death , a state in which a person’s heartbeat and breathing have stopped and can’t be restarted through cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) or other means (Lewis et al., 2017; Panna, 2021; President’s Commission, 1981; Rodman & Breu, 2022). This medical understanding of death prevailed through the late 1960s.
However, the development of machines that can maintain heartbeat and breathing without resuscitation required new criteria to establish that death had occurred. In the 1970s, doctors and legal experts recognized the concept of brain death (Greer et al., 2023; Lewis et al., 2017), in which part of the brain stem, the area at the base of the brain just above the spinal cord, has stopped functioning. The brain stem contains the pons and medulla oblongata, structures that control basic functions like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. A person who is brain dead will have a heartbeat and breathe only with the aid of machines and medications.
This new definition of death wasn’t immediately universally adopted. In the late 1970s, a committee appointed by President Jimmy Carter composed the Uniform Determination of Death Act (UDDA), creating a standard definition of death to ensure more consistent practices across U.S. jurisdictions (Lewis et al., 2017; President’s Commission, 1981; Rodman & Breu, 2022). This definition, adopted by most states, says that:
An individual who has sustained either (1) irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brainstem, is dead. A determination of death must be made in accordance with accepted medical standards. (President’s Commission, 1981, p. 2)
While this seems straightforward, this committee didn’t define “acceptable medical standards,” which vary from state to state.  This means someone could be considered alive in one U.S. state but dead in another (Rodman & Breu, 2021).
Life Expectancy across the World
The term mortality describes how we will all inevitably die, while mortality rate describes how common death is in a population. Mortality can be used to describe the prevalence of death in a group based on life stage (e.g., expectant mothers), or based on a demographic category (e.g., race or SES), or in a geographic region (e.g., in a specific country). Although we’ll all die eventually, we don’t share the same risk factors. We won’t live equally long or die of the same causes. Race, socioeconomic status, genetic characteristics, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices all affect the length of our lives and the level of health we’ll face along the way.
How long we live— life expectancy —varies person-to-person due to many individual factors, such as sex and age (as you learned in 15.1 Physical Aging in Late Adulthood) and it also varies across the world. Global life expectancy is an average of life expectancies in all the countries of the world (Figure 17.2).
Research consistently shows that life expectancy in many African countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, is lower than in many other parts of the world (Abubakari et al., 2019; Cao et al., 2020; Djoumessi, 2022; Freeman et al., 2020; GBD 2019 Demographics Collaborators, 2020; Heuveline, 2022; WHO, 2020). For example, WHO data by region indicate that in 2019, the average life expectancy in Africa was 64.5 years, while life expectancies in southeast Asia, the western Pacific, the Americas, and Europe were all at least 71.4 years (WHO, 2020).
What causes these differences? Within Africa, nations like Rwanda and Lesotho that have experienced high rates of war, terrorism, and political unrest appear make the populations within them particularly vulnerable to higher mortality rates compared to countries with more economic and government stability like Ethiopia (Cao et al., 2020; Freeman et al., 2020; Heuveline, 2022). Sub-Saharan countries like Swaziland, Lesotho, and Mozambique have lower and declining life expectancies due to threats to mortality including outbreaks of wars and/or a higher prevalence of people living with HIV or AIDS (Abubakari et al., 2019; Cao et al., 2020). Many African nations have a high infant mortality rate, largely due to malnutrition and infectious diseases like cholera and malaria, and these deaths are believed to be largely preventable (Abubakari et al., 2019; Djoumessi, 2022; GBD 2019 Demographics Collaborators, 2020).
So how can these deaths be prevented? It might seem like improved economies are the answer, but increased economic resources aren’t always associated with increased life expectancy (Abubakari et al., 2019; Djoumessi, 2022; Freeman et al., 2020; Martinez et al., 2021).  For example, east African nations like Ethiopia have higher life expectancy than central and west African nations like Cameroon and Ghana, despite higher rates of HIV infection; this difference is attributed to governments’ allocating more money to provide universal health care, clean drinking water, and programs that increase health-care options in rural areas (Abubakari et al., 2019; Djoumessi, 2022; Freeman et al., 2020).
Common Causes of Death
Like life expectancy, the most common causes of death differ by demographic variables. For example, men worldwide are more likely to die of accidents, murder, and suicide than women (WHO, 2019). Geographic location also plays a role, usually due to the resources and living conditions in an area. For example, in Angola, diarrheal disease (cholera, rotavirus) is the most common cause of death, likely due to lack of clean drinking water; however, in Canada, the leading cause of death is heart disease (Global Health Observatory, n.d.-a).
As of 2019, heart disease was the most common cause of death worldwide. It accounted for 9 million deaths recorded that year; stroke and COPD were second and third (WHO, 2020). However, the COVID-19 pandemic changed the statistics somewhat. The WHO estimates that the excess mortality attributable to COVID-19 was 3 million people in 2020. In other words, in 2020, COVID-19 caused 3 million more deaths worldwide than would have occurred without it (WHO, 2021). In the United States, COVID-19 replaced unintentional injury/accidents as the third most common cause of death in 2020 and 2021 (Xu et al., 2022), then dropped to fourth in 2022 (Ahmad et al., 2023).
Falls are another frequent cause of injury-related death among adults ages sixty-five and older, and the death rate from falls is increasing (CDC, 2024). The age-adjusted fall death rate increased by 41 percent from 2012 to 2021, from approximately 55 to nearly 80 fall-related deaths per 100,000 older adults (CDC, 2024).
Common causes of death also vary by age. In the United States, the most common cause of death for infants less than one year old is congenital abnormality (WISQARS, 2022). From ages 1 to 44, the most common cause is unintentional injury/accident. Even within that category, however, there are age-related differences. For children aged 1 to 4, the most common type of fatal unintentional injury is drowning, while from 5 to 24, it is motor vehicle accidents (CDC, n.d.). In many developing nations, infectious diseases and malnutrition are more commonly the causes of death, especially in children under five (Abubakari et al., 2019; Djoumessi, 2022; GBD 2019 Demographics Collaborators, 2020).
Trajectories of Dying
In 1968, Glaser and Strauss proposed the existence of three dying trajectories, pathways to death that vary on dimensions such as the nature and rate of decline. Lunney and colleagues added a fourth dimension in 2002 (Figure 17.3) (Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2018). The four dying trajectories shown in Figure 17.4 are sudden death, terminal illness, organ failure, and frailty.
- Sudden death is an abrupt loss of function, as in heart attack, stroke, and accidents.
- Terminal illness is a more gradual loss of function, such as from cancer.
- Organ failure is characterized by an overall gradual decline with fluctuating cycles of illness and improvement, as in kidney failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and congestive heart failure.
- Frailty is also gradual, but with a lower level of functioning and steadier decline without cycles of improvement, as in Alzheimer’s disease and diabetes.
Each dying trajectory may require different adaptation and adjustment (Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2018; Lunney et al., 2002). For example, terminal illness is associated with increased symptoms of depression and anxiety for the dying person (Tang et al., 2014), while frailty often increases emotional and financial burdens for caregivers (Covinsky et al., 2003).
The Process of Dying
Along with there being many potential causes of death , a single cause of death can be experienced very differently by different individuals. The same cause of death can follow different timelines, depending on such factors as how a diagnosis of illness occurs. Regardless of the specific cause, there are biological processes that happen to our bodies when we die.
Death occurs either when certain types of cells (such as those in the pons and medulla oblongata in the brain) stop working, or when enough cells in an organ have stopped working that the organ no longer functions. In either case, the body can’t carry out its normal processes. “Whether gradual or sudden, death is actually a series of events that occurs over time” (Murray, 2010, p. 33). The time frame might be long or short, but even in sudden death, a series of events still takes place. The human body wasn’t designed to last forever (Murray, 2010). Our cells have life expectancies of their own—for example, red blood cells live for about four months—and we don’t always get new ones to replace cells that were worn out or damaged, particularly in our muscles and brain.
 This decline can affect cognitive functions such as memory, visuospatial skills, and word knowledge, as well as physical functions such as balance and manual dexterity (Gerstorf & Ram, 2013). It occurs reliably in older adults, although the rate of decline appears to depend on how high-functioning the person is in old age, the presence of underlying diseases, and mental health problems like depression (Brandmaier et al., 2017; Gerstorf & Ram, 2013; Theill et al., 2018).
When a person dies slowly, from age or chronic illness, there’s often a noticeable period shortly before death during which they seem to change. They may stop eating and drinking, seem weak, and sleep more than usual. Lack of fluids and nutrients can affect the cardiovascular system, making it hard for blood to flow normally throughout the body. As a result, blood pressure drops, the kidneys start to fail, and the person’s arms and legs may get cold, blotchy, and/or turn blue, gray, or ashen in color due to lack of blood circulation (Figure 17.5). The heart rate may increase as the heart tries to push blood throughout the body (Murray, 2010; Parish et al., 2018). Lack of fluids and nutrients can also affect the brain, causing confusion and agitation, and preventing the brain from effectively monitoring breathing, heartbeat, and body temperature. Body temperature drops, breathing slows and becomes irregular, and the person enters an unconscious or semiconscious state. Eventually, all body systems stop working (Murray, 2010; Parish et al., 2018).
Link to Learning
Does death on TV and in movies look like death in real life? Many health-care workers do not think so. National Public Radio tells a story about some efforts to portray death more realistically in popular media.
Psychological Aspects of Death
Death also has psychological aspects. The experience of death isn’t the same for everyone. Even when two people share the same cause of death, such as breast cancer, they may differ in the speed of progression, the pain they experience, and the kind and amount of support they have.
Being aware (or not) of impending death might affect a person’s self-concept, and how helpful that awareness is can vary person to person.
Being diagnosed with a terminal illness is likely to change a person’s self-perception (Aho, 2016; Greenberg et al., 1986; Kalish, 1968; Raju & Reddy, 2018; Zhang et al., 2023). When people are unable to care for themselves or participate in typical aspects of daily life, they may experience a loss of identity (Bryden, 2019; Fang et al., 2023; Gaignard & Hurst, 2019). This may also happen when people with dementia forget important memories or loved ones and lose a general sense of continuity in their lives (Blandin, 2016). In her 2019 account of living with dementia, biochemist Christine Bryden–diagnosed with early onset dementia at age forty-six—explained that her intellectual functioning was a key part of her identity and crucial to her career. She worried that her progressing illness was removing that aspect of herself, and that she would become her diagnosis, lose her individuality, and be seen as merely a dementia patient.
Death can be a difficult or awkward topic to discuss or even acknowledge (Figure 17.7). Psychologist Suzanne M. Miller (1995) proposed two relevant coping styles: monitoring , in which people seek out information about a problem even if it represents bad news, and blunting , in which people avoid potentially distressing information. These styles have implications for how much distress a person may feel when diagnosed with a terminal illness, and they may also influence how comfortable the person is discussing it with others (Pao & Mahoney, 2018).
But do people benefit from knowing they’re dying? Does this knowledge make them scared or prepared? Does it cause them to seek comfort or push others away? These questions don’t have simple answers. In general, thinking about death makes people anxious; however, this anxiety will prompt some people to prepare, while others will feel helpless and overwhelmed. Thinking about their own death also affects the way people interact with others, particularly people they view as different. When people feel that their sense of self is threatened, as when they’re worried about their own death, they try to preserve that sense of self by becoming more committed to cultural values and showing more outgroup bias , negative feelings about people perceived as different (Greenberg et al., 1986; Juhl & Routledge, 2016; Ma-Kellams & Blascovich, 2011; Rubin, 2018). The idea that people try to preserve their identity in the face of a threat of impending death is called terror management theory (Greenberg et al., 1986). However, not everyone reacts to this threat the same way. European-Americans are more likely to react with outgroup bias than are Asian Americans. The collectivist orientation of many Asian cultures may emphasize bonding with others during times of trouble (Ma-Kellams & Blascovich, 2011; Kwon & Park, 2022), although not all research supports this (e.g., Otsubo & Yamaguchi, 2023).
People who worry about what awaits them after death may also experience death anxiety . Nichols and colleagues’ (2018) cross-cultural study looked at the relationship between views of the self and fear of death among Christians, Hindus, and Tibetan Buddhist monks. Christians generally view the soul (self) as separate from the body, existing continuously throughout life and after death. Hindus similarly view the self’s existence as continuous, but believe it is reincarnated after death. These two perspectives may make people fear death if they’re concerned about what might happen to them in the afterlife. Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, on the other hand, takes the perspective that nothing is permanent, including the self; therefore, death isn’t something to fear.
It Depends: Do Children Understand Death?
What do children understand about death ? As you might expect, older children tend to understand more about death than younger children, although experiences such as having a death in the family and participating in cultural death rituals can change that (Menendez et al., 2020).
 It also requires understanding that death can happen from a variety of causes, and that all functions of the body stop working. This last component is believed to be the most difficult to acquire, because it requires knowing how the body works (Bonoti et al., 2013; Carter, 2016; Menendez et al., 2020; Vázquez-Sánchez et al., 2019; Yang & Park, 2017). Understanding irreversibility appears to be especially challenging for children in the age range associated with Piaget’s preoperational stage of development, possibly because their egocentrism makes it hard for them to understand someone else’s experience (Yang & Park, 2017).
Traditionally, it was believed that children under the age of two or three had limited, if any, understanding of death, that children aged five to seven (sometimes five to nine) had partial understanding, and that full understanding of death occurred between seven and nine years (Carter, 2016; Vázquez-Sánchez et al., 2019; Yang & Park, 2017). However, in many cases, children appear to understand more at younger ages than previously believed. Evidence suggests they can often grasp irreversibility and universality by age five, and the idea that death can come from a variety of causes by age six (Bonoti et al., 2013; Carter, 2016; Menendez et al., 2020).
Link to Learning
Talking with children about death and grief can be challenging. Here are some resources for adults to use, both with children and for themselves.
- “Sesame Workshop”: This website provides resources and videos on how to talk to children about the loss of a loved one.
- National Public Radio: NPR’s “Life Kit” series discusses how to have difficult conversations with your child.
- UNICEF: UNICEF Parenting offers advice and tips on how to talk to children and teenagers about death.
- The Cove Center for Grieving Children: Read these FAQs about grieving children for more information on what to expect from a grieving child.
Social and Cultural Aspects of Death
Death affects not only the person who dies but also their friends, family, and acquaintances. It is thus a social occurrence. Even less intimate relationships may experience some level of adjustment to a loss. We often meet the social expectations associated with death by attending services or bringing food to the deceased person’s family, for example.
A social death occurs when a person is viewed as no longer part of society. This may happen in several ways. A person who is dying may be excluded from social invitations. Other people may not ask for their opinions and may talk about them in their presence without acknowledging them (Borgstrom, 2017; Ghane et al., 2021; Králová, 2015). The intentions may be good ones, such as trying to avoid upsetting the dying person with reminders of events they can’t attend (Figure 17.8). People who are dying may also choose to withdraw from social activities, imposing social death on themselves (Caswell & O’Connor, 2015). This might be a rational choice, but it may still create what Gaignard and Hurst call “loss of social significance” (2019, p. 5), in which a person feels lonely and useless. Social death may also occur if a person isn’t actively dying but has a chronic illness or stigmatizing condition, such as mental illness or AIDS (Ghane et al., 2021). Caregivers may also experience social death in that they tend to report more social isolation than non-caregivers (Kovaleva et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2023; Walker et al., 2023).
Religious and Spiritual Views of Death and Dying
Whether religion and spirituality influence views of death and dying, and in what way, is a complex topic. We might assume that people who report more religiosity or spirituality find comfort in their beliefs and thus report lower rates of death anxiety, but that’s not necessarily true. Religion can be comforting and help give death a sense of meaning, but death can cause people to question their faith, which may be distressing (Neimeyer et al., 2021). And not having any particular religious or spiritual beliefs doesn’t appear to have any significant negative impact. People with a more secular orientation do not report higher levels of stress or anxiety related to death or more difficulty coping (Ahmadi & Zandi, 2021; Schweda et al., 2017).
Religious views of death and dying often include ideas of an afterlife and a self-assessment of whether we made the “right” choices in life. Not surprisingly, if people believe a happy afterlife awaits them, they’re likely to be less anxious about dying than people who are worried about the possibility of a negative afterlife (Drążkowski & Trepanowski, 2021; Ghayas & Batool, 2021; Gire, 2014). Belief systems conveying that death is a punishment can increase anxiety as well (Ahmadi & Zandi, 2021). On the other hand, belief systems that emphasize death as natural or a transition instead of an ending, such as Buddhism, are often associated with lower anxiety (Dorji & Lapierre, 2022).
Religious views may also affect the way people feel about end-of-life treatments or even the way they define the end of life itself (Figure 17.9). For example, Christianity and Islam often regard their higher power (i.e., God, Allah) as a sovereign in control of what happens to them. This means that the use of end-of-life treatments or euthanasia may be frowned upon as going against “God’s will” (Daniels-Howell, 2022; Eyetsemitan, 2002; Krikorian et al., 2020; Nadeem et al., 2017; Searight, 2022; Testoni et al., 2020). Some branches of Judaism reject the notion of brain death and use cardiopulmonary death as an indicator of true death; as a result, some states require health-care providers to use that standard when requested.
Cultural Views of Death and Dying
What we think of as “ culture ” has many dimensions, including, but not limited to, religion, country of origin, gender, and ethnicity. Even people who share broad cultural labels may not share similar beliefs or engage in similar practices, however. For example, when a group emigrates from one country to another, they don’t all adopt the customs of the new country, maintain the customs of their old country, or balance the two in the same ways.
International views of death and dying may depend, at least in part, on the causes and contexts of death. As you’ve learned, causes of death and the ages at which it occurs differ worldwide. As a result, some countries may experience more sudden death, death from infectious disease, death from war and violence, and death at younger ages than other countries. Other factors such as gender roles and stigma may affect views of death. Before marriage equality, lesbian and gay couples faced unique struggles related to their rights to support their partner including being denied hospital visitation and medical decision making ability (Mohanty, 2010). Men and women in married relationships often face different challenges following the death of their spouse. Women traditionally bear a bigger financial burden than men following the loss of a spouse, whereas men struggle more with household tasks following the loss of a spouse (Dabergott, 2022). Regarding stigma, AIDS is a common cause of death in Africa, particularly in sub-Saharan nations (Abubakari et al., 2019; Cao et al., 2020), but it’s not always recorded as the cause of death due to the stigma associated with it (Bradshaw et al., 2016).
International views of death often vary by whether a county has a primarily individualistic or collectivistic orientation. In individualistic cultures, there’s a strong focus on individual autonomy and choice at the end of life (Karumathil & Tripathi, 2022; Walter, 2003). In collectivistic cultures, such as those in Turkey, Iran, China, and many Indigenous Native Americans, there tends to be more focus on making group decisions, building consensus, maintaining the social order, and trusting authority figures (Anderson & Woticky, 2018; Karumathil & Tripathi, 2022; Krikorian et al., 2020). For example, in Japan, patients tend to view trusting doctors as more important than exercising autonomy. This is consistent with the Japanese custom of omakase , which dictates that medical decisions are best left to medical experts (Krikorian et al., 2020). People living in collectivist cultures may also not ask the patient about their wishes or even be honest with them about their impending death (Karumathil & Tripathi, 2022).
Other international differences are country- or region-specific. For example, openly expressing grief is generally acceptable in Egypt, but not in Taiwan or Bali. Among the Achuar in eastern Ecuador, there is an attempt to forget about the dead as soon as possible, due to a fear that the dead person may cause trouble by bringing bad luck to the family or even seeking revenge for perceived mistreatment while they were alive (Gire, 2014). In Mexico, in contrast, an entire holiday, Dia de los Muertos or “Day of the Dead,” is devoted to remembering ancestors (Figure 17.10).
It Depends: How Do Different Cultural Groups View Brain Death?
Not all cultures are equally accepting of brain death. In countries such as Japan, China, and the Republic of Korea, brain death is an acceptable diagnosis only in cases of organ donation and requires approval from the patient’s family, but not necessarily an advance directive from the patients themselves. In the Republic of Korea, a diagnosis of brain death also requires unanimous approval from a special committee (Terunuma & Mathis, 2021; Yang & Miller, 2015), making the process longer and more complicated.
We can also look at religious factors in acceptance of brain death. Buddhism views the body and soul holistically, as one entity, with body heat and a heartbeat being signs of life (Terunuma & Mathis, 2021; Yang & Miller, 2015). Because Buddhism has a strong belief in an afterlife and reincarnation, the body must be left intact; harvesting organs for donation is often seen as mutilation (Yang & Miller, 2015). This may explain why organ donation isn’t common in countries with a large Buddhist population, such as China, Japan, and the Republic of Korea (Terunuma & Mathis, 2021).
Within countries—intranationally—people vary in their views of death and dying. Due to the multicultural makeup of many nations, inhabitants may not share identical values and practices. The Canadian population, for example, is represented by about 200 distinct ethnic origins (Shooshtari et al., 2021).
Traditionally, Native American communities within the United States take a collectivistic perspective and regard death as a community experience, in which communities gather to support the bereaved and participate in rituals to honor the deceased. Traditional beliefs generally regard life as cyclical, and death as a natural part of that cycle. Native Americans may believe the afterlife is good and the spirit lives on after death, possibly even visiting and guiding loved ones through dreams and natural symbols such as animals. Traditionally, some Native Americans consider the number four sacred because some natural phenomena like winds and the seasons happen in fours, so they may wait four days after death to bury the deceased, to give the deceased person’s soul time to visit loved ones (Walker, 2019).
Of course, Native Americans in the United States are not uniform and experience some important differences. While Native Americans tend to be monotheistic, they differ in their views of what “God” is. The Lakota Sioux refer to their guiding spirit as “Grandfather,” while the Muscogee Creek think of a genderless energy. Although it’s a common tradition to put mementos in the deceased person’s casket, what those mementos are can also vary. The mementos might be personal belongings (Muscogee Creek), locks of hair (Lakota), or tobacco (Ojibwe). Burial and funeral practices differ as well. Apache, for example, bury the deceased person’s belongings in a separate grave next to the body, and Navajo people avoid saying the deceased person’s name after the funeral so they don’t accidentally call the person’s spirit back to earth (Walker, 2019).
Intersections and Contexts: Nigeria’s Diverse Views of Death
Nigeria provides an interesting example of how different traditions intersect in their views of death. Nigeria’s history and culture include a mix of Christian and Islamic religious practices as well as traditional ancestor worship; some Nigerians practice more than one tradition. In Islam, Allah is all-powerful and all-ruling, and will judge our actions after death. Christians believe their faith will lead them to a better place after death and that God has a plan for all life’s challenges and difficulties. In traditional ancestor worship, life is cyclical, and the dead can be reincarnated in new births and/or be alive in a different spirit world (Anizoba et al., 2021; Eyetsemitan, 2002; Ushe, 2017).
These differences can produce conflicts if a person adheres to more than one belief system. For example, a Nigerian who follows both ancestor worship and Christianity may have trouble reconciling the Christian notion of God’s will with the idea that someone’s death has been caused by witchcraft. Marriages are also regarded differently within these belief systems in ways relevant to death. In Nigerian Christian marriages, a widow is assumed by default to inherit all her husband’s assets, but in “customary law” marriages, widows inherit nothing and must rely on their husband’s relatives for financial support. Though its practice is relatively rare, Islamic law permits polygamy (Abbasi & Cheema, 2020; Rohmadi et al., 2022), so if a man has multiple wives, division of assets might not be clear; some people may marry within more than one system, which complicates matters further (Eyetsemitan, 2002).
Nigeria's culture and diversity of beliefs demonstrates why we must be cautious in describing the beliefs and practices of various cultures and countries. There’s no single “Nigerian view” of death, because Nigerians adhere to a variety of traditions and belief systems. Many other nations also have diverse populations, and increased globalization multiplies this diversity. While knowing someone’s country of origin or residence may give clues to that person’s belief system, it’s not a substitute for getting to know them as an individual.
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16.4: Leukocytes and Platelets
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the general characteristics of leukocytes
- Classify leukocytes according to their lineage, their main structural features, and their primary functions
- Discuss the most common malignancies involving leukocytes
- Identify the lineage, basic structure, and function of platelets
Leukocytes
The leukocyte , commonly known as a white blood cell (or WBC), is a major component of the body’s defenses against disease. Leukocytes protect the body against invading microorganisms and body cells with mutated DNA, and they clean up debris. You may find it helpful to reference the image Formed Elements in a Blood Sample (Figure 16.3.1) and the Table 16.2.2 Summary of Formed Elements in Blood along with this content.
Characteristics of Leukocytes
Although leukocytes and erythrocytes both originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the red bone marrow, they are very different from each other in many significant ways. For instance, leukocytes are far less numerous than erythrocytes; typically there are only 5000 to 10,000 per µ L. They are also larger than erythrocytes and are the only formed elements that are complete cells in circulation, possessing a nucleus and organelles. Although there is just one type of erythrocyte, there are many types of leukocytes. Most of these types have a much shorter lifespan than that of erythrocytes, some as short as a few hours, or even a few minutes in the case of acute infection.
One of the most distinctive characteristics of leukocytes is their movement.  For leukocytes, the vascular network is often simply a highway they travel and soon exit to reach their true destination. When they arrive, they may differentiate further and be given distinct names, such as macrophage or microglia, depending on their function. As shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), they leave the capillaries—the smallest blood vessels—or other small vessels through a process known as emigration (from the Latin for “removal”) or diapedesis (dia- = “through”; -pedan = “to leap”) in which they squeeze through adjacent cells in a blood vessel wall.
Once they have exited the capillaries, some leukocytes will take up residence in lymphatic tissue, bone marrow, the spleen, the thymus, or other organs. Others will move about through the tissue spaces very much like amoebae, continuously extending their plasma membranes, sometimes wandering freely, and sometimes moving toward the direction in which they are drawn by chemical signals. This attracting of leukocytes occurs because of positive chemotaxis (literally “movement in response to chemicals”), a phenomenon in which injured or infected cells and nearby leukocytes emit the equivalent of a chemical “911” call, attracting more leukocytes to the site. In clinical medicine, the differential counts of the types and percentages of leukocytes present are often key indicators in making a diagnosis and selecting a treatment.
Classification of Leukocytes
When scientists first began to observe stained blood slides, it quickly became evident that leukocytes could be divided into two groups, according to whether their cytoplasm contained highly visible granules:
- Granular leukocytes (granulocytes) contain abundant granules within the cytoplasm. They include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils (you can view their lineage from myeloid stem cells in Figure 16.5.1 Hemopoietic System of Bone Marrow).
- While granules are not totally lacking in agranular leukocytes (agranulocytes) , they are far fewer and less obvious. Agranular leukocytes include monocytes, which also arise from myeloid stem cells and mature into macrophages that are phagocytic, and lymphocytes, which arise from the lymphoid stem cell line.
Granular Leukocytes
We will consider the granular leukocytes (granulocytes) in order from most common to least common. All of these are produced in the red bone marrow and have a short lifespan of hours to days. They typically have a lobed nucleus and are classified according to which type of stain best highlights their granules (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
The most common of all the leukocytes, neutrophils will normally comprise 50–70 percent of the total leukocyte count. They are 10–12 µ m in diameter, significantly larger than erythrocytes. They are called neutrophils because their granules show up most clearly with stains that are chemically neutral (neither acidic nor basic). The granules are numerous but quite fine and normally appear light lilac. The nucleus has a distinct lobed appearance and may have two to five lobes, the number increasing with the age of the cell. Older neutrophils have increasing numbers of lobes and are often referred to as polymorphonuclear (a nucleus with many forms), or simply “polys.” Younger and immature neutrophils begin to develop lobes and are known as “bands.”
Neutrophils are rapid responders to the site of infection and are efficient phagocytes with a preference for bacteria. Their granules include vesicles filled with substances that help them neutralize infectious agents: lysozyme , an enzyme capable of lysing, or breaking down, bacterial cell walls; oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide; and defensins , proteins that bind to and puncture bacterial and fungal plasma membranes so that the cell contents leak out. Abnormally high counts of neutrophils indicate infection and/or inflammation, particularly triggered by bacteria, but are also found in burn patients and others experiencing unusual stress. A burn injury increases the proliferation of neutrophils in order to fight off infection that can result from the destruction of the barrier of the skin. Low counts may be caused by drug toxicity and other disorders, and may increase an individual’s susceptibility to infection.
Eosinophils typically represent 2–4 percent of the total leukocyte count. They are also 10–12 µ m in diameter. The granules of eosinophils stain best with an acidic stain known as eosin. The nucleus of the eosinophil will typically have two to three lobes and, if stained properly, the granules will have a distinct red to orange color.
The granules of eosinophils include vesicles filled with antihistamine molecules, which counteract the activities of histamines, inflammatory chemicals produced by basophils and mast cells. Some eosinophil granules contain molecules toxic to parasitic worms, which can enter the body through the integument, or when an individual consumes raw or undercooked fish or meat. Eosinophils are also capable of phagocytosis and are particularly effective at disposing of antigen-antibody complexes. Antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins produced by certain lymphocytes that carry out several functional aspects of the specific immune response. Antibodies are designed to match-up to a specific molecule, typically a protein called an antigen, on the surface of an invading pathogen such as a parasitic worm, bacterium, or viral particle. Antibodies can also match up with a ubiquitous molecule (such as one on the surface of a pollen granule) and cause an allergic reaction. In this case the antigen is called an allergen, but antibody-antigen complexes are formed during the body's response to the presence of the allergen as if it were the antigen of an invading pathogen. Because it is the function of the eosinophils to use phagocytosis to clear out the debris associated with antibody-antigen complexes, high counts of eosinophils are typical of patients experiencing allergies and some autoimmune diseases, but eosinophils can also be elevated in the case of parasitic worm infestations. Low counts may be due to drug toxicity and stress.
Basophils are the least common leukocytes, typically comprising less than one percent of the total leukocyte count. They are slightly smaller than neutrophils and eosinophils at 8–10 µ m in diameter. The granules of basophils stain best with basic (alkaline) stains. Basophils contain large granules that pick up a dark blue stain and are so common they may make it difficult to see the two-lobed nucleus.
In general, basophils intensify the inflammatory response. They share this trait with mast cells of connective tissue proper. In the past, mast cells were considered to be basophils that left the circulation. However, this appears not to be the case, as the two cell types develop from different lineages.
The granules of basophils release histamines, which contribute to inflammation, and heparin, which opposes blood clotting. High counts of basophils are associated with allergies, parasitic infections, and hypothyroidism. Low counts are associated with pregnancy, stress, and hyperthyroidism.
Agranular Leukocytes
Agranular leukocytes (agranulocytes) contain smaller, less-visible granules in their cytoplasm than do granular leukocytes. The nucleus is simple in shape, sometimes with an indentation but without distinct lobes. There are two major types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
Lymphocytes are the only formed element of blood that arises from lymphoid stem cells. Although they form initially in the red bone marrow, much of their subsequent development and reproduction occurs in the lymphatic tissues. Lymphocytes are the second most common type of leukocyte, accounting for about 20–30 percent of all leukocytes, and are an essential part of the immune response. The size range of lymphocytes is quite extensive, with some authorities recognizing two size classes and others three. Typically, the large cells are 10–14 µ m and have a smaller nucleus-to-cytoplasm ratio and more granules. The smaller cells are typically 6–9 µ m with a larger volume of nucleus to cytoplasm, creating a “halo” effect. A few cells may fall outside these ranges, at 14–17 µ m. This finding has led to the three size range classification.
The three major groups of lymphocytes include natural killer cells, B cells, and T cells. Natural killer (NK) cells are capable of recognizing cells that do not express “self” proteins on their plasma membrane or that contain foreign or abnormal markers. These “non-self” cells include abnormal body cells such as cancer cells, cells infected with a virus, and other cells with atypical surface proteins. Thus, they provide generalized, nonspecific immunity. The larger lymphocytes are typically NK cells.
B cells and T cells, also called B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes , play prominent roles in defending the body against specific pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms) and are involved in specific immunity. One form of B cells (plasma cells) produces the antibodies or immunoglobulins that bind to specific foreign or abnormal components of plasma membranes. This is also referred to as humoral (body fluid) immunity, since antibodies are proteins dissolved in body fluids. T cells provide cellular-level immunity by physically attacking foreign or diseased cells. A memory cell is a variety of both B and T cells that forms after exposure to a pathogen and mounts rapid responses upon subsequent exposures. Unlike other leukocytes, memory cells may live for many years. B cells undergo a maturation process in the bone marrow (B for bone marrow), whereas T cells undergo maturation in the thymus (T for thymus). This site of the maturation process gives rise to the name B and T cells. The functions of lymphocytes are complex and will be covered in detail in the chapter covering the lymphatic system and immunity. Smaller lymphocytes are either B or T cells; they cannot be differentiated in a normal blood smear.
Abnormally high lymphocyte counts are characteristic of viral infections as well as some types of cancer. Abnormally low lymphocyte counts are characteristic of prolonged (chronic) illness or immunosuppression, including that caused by HIV infection and drug therapies that often involve steroids.
Monocytes originate from myeloid stem cells. They normally represent 2–8 percent of the total leukocyte count. They are typically easily recognized by their large size of 12–20 µ m and indented or horseshoe-shaped nuclei. Macrophages are monocytes that have left the circulation and further differentiated; macrophages are larger than monocytes and feature many extensions of the plasma membrane spread evenly around their periphery to increase their surface area. Macrophages phagocytize debris, foreign pathogens, worn-out erythrocytes, and many other dead, worn out, or damaged cells. Macrophages also release antimicrobial defensins and chemotactic chemicals that attract other leukocytes to the site of an infection. Some macrophages reside permanently in specific locations of the body, whereas others wander primarily through the matrix of connective tissues patrolling for abnormal cells.
Abnormally high counts of monocytes are associated with viral or fungal infections, tuberculosis, some forms of leukemia, and other chronic diseases. Abnormally low counts are typically caused by suppression of the red bone marrow.
Lifecycle of Leukocytes
Most leukocytes have a relatively short lifespan, typically measured in hours or days. Production of all leukocytes begins in the bone marrow under the influence of CSFs and interleukins. Secondary production and maturation of lymphocytes occurs in specific regions of lymphatic tissue known as germinal centers. Lymphocytes are fully capable of mitosis and may produce clones of cells with identical properties. This capacity enables an individual to maintain immunity throughout life to many threats that have been encountered in the past.
DISORDERS OF THE....
Leukocytes
Leukopenia is a condition in which too few leukocytes are produced. If this condition is pronounced, the individual may be unable to ward off disease. Excessive leukocyte proliferation is known as leukocytosis . Although leukocyte counts are high, the cells themselves are often nonfunctional, leaving the individual at increased risk for disease.
Leukemia is a cancer involving an abundance of leukocytes. It may involve only one specific type of leukocyte from either the myeloid line (myelocytic leukemia) or the lymphoid line (lymphocytic leukemia).  In acute leukemia, there is an overproduction of young, immature leukocytes. In both conditions the cells do not function properly.
Lymphoma is a form of cancer in which masses of malignant T and/or B lymphocytes collect in lymph nodes, the spleen, the liver, and other tissues. As in leukemia, the malignant leukocytes do not function properly, and the patient is vulnerable to infection. Some forms of lymphoma tend to progress slowly and respond well to treatment. Others tend to progress quickly and require aggressive treatment, without which they are rapidly fatal.
Platelets
Platelets are essential for the formation of blood clots to prevent blood loss in the event of damage to a blood vessel wall.
Characteristics and Functions of Platelets
You may occasionally see platelets referred to as thrombocytes , but because this name suggests they are a type of cell, it is misleading. A platelet is not a cell but rather a fragment of the cytoplasm of a cell called a megakaryocyte that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. Megakaryocytes are descended from myeloid stem cells (see Figure 16.5.1 Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow) and are large, typically 50–100 µ m in diameter, and contain an enlarged, lobed nucleus. Thrombopoietin, a glycoprotein secreted by the kidneys and liver, stimulates the proliferation of megakaryoblasts, which mature into megakaryocytes. These remain within red bone marrow tissue and ultimately form platelet-precursor extensions that extend through the walls of bone marrow capillaries to release into the circulation thousands of cytoplasmic fragments, each enclosed by a bit of plasma membrane. These enclosed fragments are platelets. Each megakarocyte releases 2000–3000 platelets during its lifespan. Following platelet release, megakaryocyte remnants, which are little more than a cell nucleus, are consumed by macrophages.
Platelets are relatively small, 2–4 µ m in diameter, but numerous, with typically 150,000–160,000 per µ L of blood (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). After entering the circulation, approximately one-third migrate to the spleen for storage for later release in response to any rupture in a blood vessel.  Activated platelets develop hair-like extensions to increase their surface area and become sticky. Platelets remain only about 10 days, then are phagocytized by macrophages.
Platelets are critical to hemostasis , the stoppage of blood flow following damage to a vessel. The process of hemostasis involves three steps: vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation (formation of a blood clot). During vascular spasm, smooth muscle in the wall of the damaged vessel responds to signal chemicals and pain receptors detecting the damage by constricting to restrict blood flow through the damaged area (the body's own way of applying pressure to the bleeding wound). The platelet plug is a temporary attempt to seal the damaged vessel wall. It forms when activated platelets clump and attach to the damaged area of the vessel wall. As the platelets form this initial plug, they also release signaling chemicals to initiate a cascade of events that allows the more durable and long-lasting blood clot to form. A blood clot is comprised of a mesh of elongated, fibrous fibrin proteins (activated from the plasma protein fibrinogen by clotting factors) that trap sticky platelets and red blood cells (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). Platelets also secrete a variety of growth factors essential for growth and repair of tissue, particularly connective tissue. Infusions of concentrated platelets are now being used in some therapies to stimulate healing.
DISORDERS OF THE....
Platelets
Thrombocytosis is a condition in which there are too many platelets. This may trigger formation of unwanted blood clots (thrombosis), a potentially fatal disorder.
If there is an insufficient number of platelets, called thrombocytopenia , blood may not clot properly and excessive bleeding may result. Hemophilia is a group of genetic disorders also marked by excessive bleeding, but caused by inadequate production of one or more clotting factors, resulting in failure of the blood to properly clot.
Concept Review
Leukocytes function in body defenses. They squeeze out of the walls of blood vessels through emigration or diapedesis, then may move through tissue fluid or become attached to various organs where they fight against pathogenic organisms, diseased cells, or other threats to health. Granular leukocytes, which include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, originate from myeloid stem cells, as do monocytes, one type of agranular leukocyte. The other agranular leukocytes, NK cells, B cells, and T cells, which are all types of lymphocytes, arise from the lymphoid stem cell line. The most abundant leukocytes are the neutrophils, which are first responders to infections, especially with bacteria. About 20–30 percent of all leukocytes are lymphocytes, which are critical to the body’s defense against specific threats. Leukemia and lymphoma are malignancies involving leukocytes. Platelets are fragments of cells known as megakaryocytes that dwell within the bone marrow. While many platelets are stored in the spleen, others enter the circulation and are essential for hemostasis; they also produce several growth factors important for repair and healing.
Review Questions
Q. The process by which leukocytes squeeze through adjacent cells in a blood vessel wall is called ________.
A. leukocytosis
B. positive chemotaxis
C. emigration
D. cytoplasmic extending
- Answer
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Answer: C
Q. Which of the following describes a neutrophil?
A. abundant, agranular, especially effective against cancer cells
B. abundant, granular, especially effective against bacteria
C. rare, agranular, releases antimicrobial defensins
D. rare, granular, contains multiple granules packed with histamine
- Answer
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Answer: B
Q. T and B lymphocytes ________.
A. are polymorphonuclear
B. are involved with specific immune function
C. proliferate excessively in leukopenia
D. are most active against parasitic worms
- Answer
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Answer: B
Q. A patient has been experiencing severe, persistent allergy symptoms that are reduced when she takes an antihistamine. Before the treatment, this patient was likely to have had increased activity of which leukocyte?
A. basophils
B. neutrophils
C. monocytes
D. natural killer cells
- Answer
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Answer: A
Q. Thrombocytes are more accurately called ________.
A. clotting factors
B. megakaryoblasts
C. megakaryocytes
D. platelets
- Answer
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Answer: D
Critical Thinking Questions
Q. One of the more common adverse effects of cancer chemotherapy is the destruction of leukocytes. Before his next scheduled chemotherapy treatment, a patient undergoes a blood test called an absolute neutrophil count (ANC), which reveals that his neutrophil count is 1900 cells per microliter. Would his healthcare team be likely to proceed with his chemotherapy treatment? Why?
- Answer
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A. A neutrophil count below 1800 cells per microliter is considered abnormal. Thus, this patient’s ANC is at the low end of the normal range and there would be no reason to delay chemotherapy. In clinical practice, most patients are given chemotherapy if their ANC is above 1000.
Q. A patient was admitted to the burn unit the previous evening suffering from a severe burn involving his left upper extremity and shoulder. A blood test reveals that he is experiencing leukocytosis. Why is this an expected finding?
- Answer
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A. Any severe stress can increase the leukocyte count, resulting in leukocytosis. A burn is especially likely to increase the proliferation of leukocytes in order to ward off infection, a significant risk when the barrier function of the skin is destroyed.
Glossary
- agranular leukocytes
- leukocytes with few granules in their cytoplasm; specifically, monocytes, lymphocytes, and NK cells
- B lymphocytes
- (also, B cells) lymphocytes that defend the body against specific pathogens and thereby provide specific immunity
- basophils
- granulocytes that stain with a basic (alkaline) stain and store histamine and heparin
- blood clot
- mesh of fibrin proteins and sticky platelets and red blood cells that forms a more durable and long-lasting seal for a damaged blood vessel wall during hemostasis
- coagulation
- process of forming a blood clot during hemostasis
- defensins
- antimicrobial proteins released from neutrophils and macrophages that create openings in the plasma membranes to kill cells
- diapedesis
- (also, emigration) process by which leukocytes squeeze through adjacent cells in a blood vessel wall to enter tissues
- emigration
- (also, diapedesis) process by which leukocytes squeeze through adjacent cells in a blood vessel wall to enter tissues
- eosinophils
- granulocytes that stain with eosin; they release antihistamines and are especially active against parasitic worms
- fibrin
- activated form of the plasma protein fibrinogen; elongated, fibrous protein that forms a mesh framework within a blood clot
- granular leukocytes
- leukocytes with abundant granules in their cytoplasm; specifically, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
- hemophilia
- a group of genetic disorders that can result in excessive bleeding related to inadequate production of one or more clotting factors
- hemostasis
- stoppage of blood flow following damage to a vessel
- leukemia
- cancer involving leukocytes
- leukocyte
- (also, white blood cell) colorless, nucleated blood cell, the chief function of which is to protect the body from disease
- leukocytosis
- excessive leukocyte proliferation
- leukopenia
- below-normal production of leukocytes
- lymphocytes
- agranular leukocytes of the lymphoid stem cell line, many of which function in specific immunity
- lymphoma
- form of cancer in which masses of malignant T and/or B lymphocytes collect in lymph nodes, the spleen, the liver, and other tissues
- lysozyme
- digestive enzyme with bactericidal properties
- megakaryocyte
- bone marrow cell that produces platelets
- memory cell
- type of B or T lymphocyte that forms after exposure to a pathogen
- monocytes
- agranular leukocytes of the myeloid stem cell line that circulate in the bloodstream; tissue monocytes are macrophages
- natural killer (NK) cells
- cytotoxic lymphocytes capable of recognizing cells that do not express “self” proteins on their plasma membrane or that contain foreign or abnormal markers; provide generalized, nonspecific immunity
- neutrophils
- granulocytes that stain with a neutral dye and are the most numerous of the leukocytes; especially active against bacteria
- platelet plug
- temporary seal for a damaged blood vessel wall during hemostasis; comprised of sticky platelets attached to the damaged vessel wall
- polymorphonuclear
- having a lobed nucleus, as seen in some leukocytes
- positive chemotaxis
- process in which a cell is attracted to move in the direction of chemical stimuli
- T lymphocytes
- (also, T cells) lymphocytes that provide cellular-level immunity by physically attacking foreign or diseased cells
- thrombocytes
- platelets, one of the formed elements of blood that consists of cell fragments broken off from megakaryocytes
- thrombocytopenia
- condition in which there are too few platelets, resulting in abnormal bleeding (hemophilia)
- thrombocytosis
- condition in which there are too many platelets, resulting in abnormal clotting (thrombosis)
Contributors and Attributions
-
OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology


Chapter 8: Corrections
Learning Objectives
After reading this section, students will be able to:
- Understand where the basic concept of punishment comes from
- Recognize the different ideologies of why and how people are punished
- Understand how punishment has evolved in the world, and how that has shaped punishment in the United States
Up to this point, we have spent much time on understanding crime, how it is policed, and how it is prosecuted in the courts. This section will cover the last third of the justice system, corrections. This section will focus on a brief history of corrections, to include the philosophical underpinnings of why and how we punish people.
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why are we more punitive at times than others? What changes our punitive values?
- What are some of the pros/cons of each of the four correctional ideologies?
- Does crime change depending on our collective correctional ideology, or practice?
- Does punishment change, based on our correctional ideology? How?
- What are some key explanations for the rise in the prison population in the U.S.?
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- 8.2: Retribution
- Retribution, arguably the oldest of the ideologies/philosophies of punishment, is the only backward-looking philosophy of punishment. That is, the primary goal of retribution (in its original form) is to ensure that punishments are proportionate to the seriousness of the crimes committed, regardless of the individual differences between offenders, other than mens rea and an understanding of moral culpability. Thus, retribution focuses on the past offense, rather than the offender.


6.2: Documentation Boards - Not Just for Displaying Art
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- Last updated
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- Gina Peterson and Emily Elam
- College of the Canyons
When you walk into a classroom what do you typically see on the walls? Quite possibly you will see colorful posters, charts, family photos, and lots and lots of artwork. Have you ever wondered why we post things on our walls? Is it to make our classrooms more aesthetically pleasing? More colorful and eye-appealing? Do we want to motivate our children to do their best work because it will be posted for all to see? Are we trying to create a cozy space where our children can feel comfortable and feel like they belong? Are we hoping our parents see all the great work that we are doing? Everything that is posted on your classroom walls should communicate a message. Documentation Boards help us to convey important messages. A central message that I believe to be most important is that “Children Learn Through Play!”
When parents drop off and pick up their child, they may see their child playing with blocks, puzzles, playdough, or in the dramatic play area with their peers. To some, this type of open exploration or child-directed play (sometimes called free play ) may look frivolous, inconsequential or perhaps trivial because it lacks formal instruction. The idea that learning can be playful, and fun may be difficult for some parents to understand. Many parents like to see some type of tangible evidence – for example, a finished worksheet or completed art project, to “know” that teaching and learning are happening. Thus, it is necessary for us as intentional teachers to convey the importance of play through formal documentation. We must provide parents with information that explains not only the end result,(or product) but the process of how curriculum activities are specifically designed to help children master milestones in all the developmental domains. More importantly, we must showcase that learning is a direct product of play.
What are Documentation Boards
Documentation boards use observations and assessments to illustrate a child’s process of learning. When used effectively, documentation boards highlight the purpose of an activity and record the milestones that have been mastered ( NAEYC , 2008). In order for parents to truly understand that children learn through play, documentation boards should include work samples or photos that highlight what the child did during the activity, along with several quotes to highlight the child’s thought process. When done correctly, teachers and families should be able to follow a child’s progress over time. Documentation Boards help teachers and families understand, without explanation, the child’s abilities and Interests. Documentation Boards provide clear evidence as to what children are learning throughout the school year in each of the developmental domains: Physical, Cognitive, Social, Emotional and Language.
What to Document
When I was a “young” teacher, I often felt obligated to post one piece of artwork for each child in the classroom so as to be “fair” that each child was represented. On my classroom walls, I mostly posted artwork and I didn’t provide any caption or describe the purpose of the activity. Not only did that take a lot of time, but it also took up a lot of wall space. As I became more intentional (and a more “seasoned” teacher, I learned that there was a more efficient way to showcase children’s learning. I began to use documentation boards to make learning more visible. Since learning is happening all day - every day in the classroom, there are a variety of topics that can be presented. Documentation boards can illustrate something as simple as a child playing with sand and water for an hour, or something complex like a child learning how to tie their shoes over a long period of time. These boards can feature one child, a group of children, or the whole class. Here are some suggested topics to consider when creating a formal Documentation Board: daily routines, project-based activities, child-directed play and exploration, outdoor play experiences, circle-time conversations, developmental milestones, social relationships, and teacher-directed lesson plan activities. The topics are endless.
How to Make a Documentation Board
Posters, bulletin boards, and slide shows are all commonly used to create documentation boards. The format chosen to use for the documentation board should be reflective of the purpose, the audience, and the activity being presented. These boards can be simple, artistic, or even three dimensional. Before creating the board, consider the collaboration of additional teachers, children, and families. Having a team create the board adds a new level of depth, with various ideas and opinions. The first step is creating a title that invites families to approach the board. Next, mention the developmental milestones and goals for the activity (what the children are learning). Add photos and children’s quotes (both parents and children enjoy this), Include the steps that were taken or the process, and work samples as the final product. An extra step would be to add a recipe card or take-home handout so parents can replicate the activity at home. While constructing the board ask yourself, is this showing the child’s thought process, developmental growth, and both the child’s and teacher’s reflection. When creating your documentation boards remember that these boards respect all children’s work. The board needs to value efficiency over cuteness, and engagement over entertainment. (The Compass School, 2018). Lastly, the Documentation Board replaces the concept there needs to be one piece of artwork for each child in the class. When you post several documentation boards, all with different themes and purposes, you will no doubt capture all of the children in your care.
Make a decision on what you want to communicate on the documentation board:
- Projects or themes
- Special events
- Specific curriculum areas
- Learning environments
- Skill acquisition
- Child development
Collect materials for the panel:
- Children’s actual work or photocopies
- Observation notes / anecdotal records
- Information and quotes from books and journals
- Curriculum webs
- Quotes and dictation from children and teachers
- Photographs – various sizes (enlarge or shrink on a photocopier) – color, or black and white.
Select the best items that represent the idea or theme of your panel:
- Write an educational Caption for each piece
- Use a type size large enough to be read from a distance
Layout of panel:
- Determine where the panel will be displayed (on a table or wall?)
- Select a type of panel: poster board (best for wall) or three side3d board
- Title the panel
- Select a strong image as the focal point on the panel
- Aesthetics are important
- Matte work and photographs
- Use colored paper to support, not detract from, the images
The Perks of Using Portfolios
Another popular form of documentation is portfolios. Many programs use a portfolio system to record and store information about each child’s learning, growth and development. Using both formal and informal observations, teachers begin collecting “evidence” within the first month of a child starting school. Throughout the school year, intentional teachers collect numerous work samples, anecdotal notes, learning stories, checklists, and frequency counts, and it is necessary to safely store everything in an organized manner. A portfolio is the most optimal way to do that. A portfolio helps teachers store observation notes, pieces of art, and photos that are needed to capture and highlight a child’s individual strengths, interests and abilities. Portfolios can also store information about a child’s thought process, behavior, social interactions, and needs. With all the stored documentation, teachers can assess a child’s development.
Portfolios, like documentation boards, record and track a child’s development. More specifically, a p ortfolio tells the unique story of each child’s individual progress over time. Although portfolios are not designed to be an assessment tool, portfolios can be shared with families during a conference to showcase evidence of a child’s learning throughout the school year. P ortfolios hold authentic samples and highlight a child’s capabilities, achievements, and progress. During a conference, rather than receiving a handout with checked boxes that rate a child’s level of learning, parents and family members will enjoy seeing first-hand what their child “can do.” Having both a formal assessment and authentic work samples provides teachers and families a clear picture of the whole child’s development.
Since learning and development are ongoing, portfolios have to be easy to use and accessible. Teachers will have to find a rhythm and medium that works best for their teaching style. Here are just a few examples of some portfolios:
- Electronic or e-portfolios stored on computers;
- Accordion files
- File folders,
- Three-ring binders,
- Creative memory photo albums
No matter which style of portfolio a teacher uses, it is important to label and date all pieces of evidence that you put into your portfolio.


15: Oscillations
We begin the study of oscillations with simple systems of pendulums and springs. Although these systems may seem quite basic, the concepts involved have many real-life applications.
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- 15.1: Prelude to Oscillations
- The Comcast Building in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has a tuned-mass damper is used to reduce the oscillations. Installed at the top of the building is a tuned, liquid-column mass damper, consisting of a 300,000-gallon reservoir of water. This U-shaped tank allows the water to oscillate freely at a frequency that matches the natural frequency of the building. Damping is provided by tuning the turbulence levels in the moving water using baffles.
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- 15.2: Simple Harmonic Motion
- A very common type of periodic motion is called simple harmonic motion (SHM). A system that oscillates with SHM is called a simple harmonic oscillator. In simple harmonic motion, the acceleration of the system, and therefore the net force, is proportional to the displacement and acts in the opposite direction of the displacement.
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- 15.3: Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
- The simplest type of oscillations are related to systems that can be described by Hooke’s law, F = −kx, where F is the restoring force, x is the displacement from equilibrium or deformation, and k is the force constant of the system. Elastic potential energy stored in the deformation of a system can be described by Hooke’s law as U = (1/2)kx^2. Energy in the simple harmonic oscillator is shared between elastic potential energy and kinetic energy, with the total being constant.
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- 15.4: Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion and Circular Motion
- A projection of uniform circular motion undergoes simple harmonic oscillation. Consider a circle with a radius A, moving at a constant angular speed ω. A point on the edge of the circle moves at a constant tangential speed of v_max = Aω. The projection of the radius onto the x-axis is x(t) = Acos(ωt + ϕ), where (ϕ) is the phase shift. The x-component of the tangential velocity is v(t) = −Aωsin(ωt + ϕ).
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- 15.5: Pendulums
- A mass m suspended by a wire of length L and negligible mass is a simple pendulum and undergoes SHM for amplitudes less than about 15°. The period of a simple pendulum is T = 2π√Lg, where L is the length of the string and g is the acceleration due to gravity. The period of a physical pendulum can be found if the moment of inertia is known where the length between the point of rotation and the center of mass is L.
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- 15.6: Damped Oscillations
- Damped harmonic oscillators have non-conservative forces that dissipate their energy. Critical damping returns the system to equilibrium as fast as possible without overshooting. An underdamped system will oscillate through the equilibrium position. An overdamped system moves more slowly toward equilibrium than one that is critically damped.
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- 15.7: Forced Oscillations
- A system’s natural frequency is the frequency at which the system oscillates if not affected by driving or damping forces. A periodic force driving a harmonic oscillator at its natural frequency produces resonance. The system is said to resonate. The less damping a system has, the higher the amplitude of the forced oscillations near resonance. The more damping a system has, the broader response it has to varying driving frequencies.
Thumbnail: A picture of the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge. The 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge, the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, was a suspension bridge in the U.S. state of Washington that spanned the Tacoma Narrows strait of Puget Sound between Tacoma and the Kitsap Peninsula. It dramatically collapsed into Puget Sound on November 7 of the same year.
Contributors and Attributions
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Samuel J. Ling (Truman State University), Jeff Sanny (Loyola Marymount University), and Bill Moebs with many contributing authors. This work is licensed by OpenStax University Physics under a Creative Commons Attribution License (by 4.0) .