2.3: Delivery Advice- Do Not Imagine the Audience Naked! Managing Eye Contact, Movement, and Gestures
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- Lynn Meade
- University of Arkansas
You can speak well
if your tongue can deliver the message of your heart.
– John Ford, celebrated Irish American director
In this chapter, I will give you some practical tips to help you strengthen your presentation skills and I want to steer you away from some of the bad advice out there. The best things you can do when it comes to presentation skills are (1) believe you can improve with practice and (2) realize connection, not perfection is the goal.
Believe You Can Improve
When you think about speaking are you tempted to believe, “Some people are just born good speakers” or “I just wasn’t made for this public speaking stuff.” If that is you, you may have what Stanford researcher, Carol Dweck calls a “fixed mindset.” She suggested that we have a fixed mindset– people are just born to be good at things or we have a growth mindset– people, with effort, can learn new skills.
When it comes to public speaking, you should work on having a growth mindset and acknowledge that effort is needed for mastery. You can improve, but it may take work. Especially with public speaking, practice equals progress. Adjusting your belief to a growth mindset frees your self-limiting beliefs and allows you to move beyond what you thought was possible.
Those who think they got their success from effort often can go farther than those who believe success is due to their natural ability. The key to making the change is to continually recognize your effort: “I gave it my best, I really stretched myself today, I put a lot of time into this, and I can tell it made a difference.” In addition, Dweck suggests the simple change of adding the word “yet” to your self vocabulary helps keep you growth-focused. Instead of saying, “I’m not good a public speaking,” say “I’m not good at public speaking yet.” Believe if you work hard enough, and practice enough, and get help when needed, you can improve and grow.
The Power of YET
Avoid saying, “I can’t do this”
but rather say “I can’t do this
yet
”
In one case, you are telling your brain to quit trying
in the other version, you allow yourself to be open to possibilities.
Never say, “I’m not good at public speaking.”
but rather say, “I may not be a perfect speaker yet but what I have to say is important
so I will work and keep getting better at it.”
Believing you can improve is an important first step. In my many years of teaching public speaking, I have witnessed some of the most insecure, timid speakers rise to become confident, and powerful in only a few months. I have seen a student who ran out of the class crying on her first speech, be voted the best speaker by her last speech. I have watched a student who stumbled over every word, evolve into a powerful speaker who delivers speeches to large groups every week. Some people seem to know how to succeed at public speaking naturally, but for most of us, it takes work. Realize with practice, you can improve as a speaker. If you are one of those lucky natural speakers, realize you too have room to improve. Now, let’s talk about two specific presentation skills where you can improve–eye contact and gestures.

Eye Contact
Bad Advice–Look at Their Foreheads
I had a teacher in high school who told me, “Don’t make eye contact with the audience because they will make you nervous. Don’t look at their eyes–look at their foreheads.” Just for fun, walk up to a friend and begin to speak to their forehead to see how they react. Really, try it. It just looks weird. Chances are your friend will say, “What the heck are you doing?” That is the same thing your audience will think if you stare at their foreheads. Honestly, it is harder to focus on foreheads than it is to look in the eyes.
Bad Advice–Imagine Your Audience Naked
A well-meaning friend told me, “Just imagine your audience naked.” Maybe you too have heard this advice, and it is the worst.  No eye contact at all! One speech coach said, “Depending on your audience, this is too exciting or too disgusting.” This piece of advice is designed to make you feel more at ease, but it doesn’t work.
Bad Advice– Stare at Random Spots Above Their Heads
I have heard this one multiple times from well-meaning teachers. “Look at the back wall.”  A sk yourself, why is eye contact so frightening? Is it because there is a person connected to those eyes? Is it because if we look at the person, we have to acknowledge their existence? One nonverbal researcher says, “Eye contact makes interaction an obligation.” If I make eye contact, I must recognize I am speaking to a real person with feelings, expectations, and dreams. If I make eye contact, I must realize a speech is an interaction and I have an obligation to that person. If I make eye contact, I become much more aware they expect something from me and I feel obligated not to waste their time.
The other reason this is bad advice is it makes you look odd, and you will lose credibility with the audience. It is a strange thing to talk to walls.  I guarantee the audience feels strange when you do it. Even in a large audience where you can’t make eye contact with everyone, you should at least find people throughout the room to look at.
Bad Advice– Follow the Eye Contact Formula
A lot of well-meaning advisors will say things like “Make eye contact for 3-5 seconds with each person” (the three-second rule) or “scan the audience from left to right” (the lighthouse technique) or “find three places in the room and look to those” (the umpire technique). The advice is not entirely bad, but the problem is it puts too much pressure on the speaker. If I am counting the seconds or working on the perfect eye contact pattern, then I am missing the point of being conversational.
Good Advice on Eye Contact
The most important advice I can give you on eye contact is to JUST DO IT. Find friendly faces around the room and look at them. Find those nice people who smile and nod and then begin looking at them in the room. Looking at them helps you gauge whether they are listening.
When speaking to a large audience, you may have to make audience contact instead of eye contact. Look at various areas where the audience members are seated to create the feeling that you are looking at them.
Benefits of Eye Contact
There are many benefits to making good eye contact. Communication researcher Steven Beebe conducted a study where he discovered an increase in eye contact increases a speaker’s perceived credibility. Other research suggests eye contact impacts focus memory, and recall. Eye contact helps the audience to see you as credible, and to remember your message more–what is not to love about that?
Watch the video, below by Dananjaya Hettiarachchi and notice how he looks directly at audience members. It is obvious why he is the world champion.
Practical Tips for Maximizing Eye Contact
- If you struggle with eye contact, at the top of every page of your notes write–“Make eye contact.”
- Have your friends sit at various places throughout the room so you have a few friendly eyes you can talk to.
- Practice with people. Sure, it is helpful to record yourself, to practice talking to a wall, and to speak to a mirror, but those are no substitutes for what happens when you speak to people. Find some friends and practice with them. Chris Anderson, of TED, says: “Perhaps the most important physical act onstage is making eye contact. Find five or six friendly-looking people in different parts of the audience and look them in the eye as you speak. Think of them as friends you haven’t seen in a year, whom you’re bringing up to date on your work.”
Eye Contact in Online Presentations
Increasingly, business presentations are being made in the online environment. The pandemic forced schools to use online learning tools where teachers give lectures online and students give presentations online. In addition, many businesses are conducting job interviews through virtual platforms. It is likely you will encounter an online speech and it is helpful to understand the unique differences. If you are making your presentations online, eye contact means looking into the camera. Draw a smiley face on a notecard and tape it beside your camera to remind you to look at your audience. It is tempting to try to make eye contact with the faces on your screen, and it is OK to look at the faces on the screen to remind you of your audience but spend the majority of your presentation time looking into the eyes of the camera.
It can be helpful to tape your notecards on a wall behind your computer or phone screen so you can glance at them briefly and then speak directly to your audience. Do not try to read your speech off your computer or phone screen; it will be obvious to the audience you are reading.
Cultural Note
Eye contact can vary from culture to culture and person to person. Just because an audience member looks away from you, it may not mean they are not interested. Consider the following differences.
- In some cultures, it would be considered inappropriate to make eye contact with someone of different gender (or sex).
- When in a high-power culture (a culture where those in power are given higher status and have deferential body language), you may notice those in lower status lower their eyes or avoid eye contact with those of higher status.
- Arabs, Latin Americans, and Southern Europeans tend to make direct eye contact
- Those from Asia and parts of Africa tend to make less eye contact.
- Those on the Autism Spectrum may avoid eye contact to help them focus on the words you are saying.
“
All you need is something to say,
and a burning desire to say it…
it doesn’t matter where your hands are.”
Lou Holtz, former Arkansas Razorback football coach
Gestures
Isn’t it funny how we rarely notice what our hands are doing while we are talking? When we get up there to give a speech, suddenly we are aware of our hands, and we can’t figure out what to do with them. One of the frequently asked questions I hear is, “What do I do with my hands?” The short answer is to relax and gesture naturally. Vivian Buchan, author of Make Presentations with Confidence suggests, “The only place a gesture comes from is inside you. Gestures come from your heart and soul, your instincts, your interests, and your involvement.” She suggests focusing on your speech and your passion and the gestures will work themselves out. The more you practice your speech, the more you will feel confident gesturing.
“Great speakers keep their body open” according to Dananjaya Hettiarachchi, 2014 Toastmasters International world champion of public speaking.  When you’re nervous, you try to cover your vital organs.” It is OK to feel nervous, the goal is to try and not look nervous. Public speaking instructor Cathy Hollingsworth off ered this nugget of advice:
So many times, when speakers are telling a story to their friends in person or even via the phone, gestures are big and descriptive but when speakers get in front of an audience, all of sudden, arms and hands become appendages that have no apparent purpose. This is what I tell speakers: Use your gestures as “bodily visual aids”. Pretend you are in a situation in which there are no electronics to show slides nor is there a whiteboard. How will you get your ideas across to the audience? Easy! Just use your gesturing to take the audience along with you on the speech. Be brave enough to make those gestures big and at least shoulder high. This is not charades, but it is close.
Gestures help you look like a polished speaker. Vanessa Van Edwards did a study and found the top TED talk speakers made an average of 465 gestures in 18 minutes while the less popular speakers made 272 gestures. The top speakers gestured almost twice as much. Gestures not only increase a speaker’s credibility but speakers who gesture are seen as more persuasive and more likable. According to Vanessa van Edwards, “It’s not what you say; it’s how you say it.” She found people rated speakers similarly on charisma, credibility, and intelligence whether they saw the speech with the sound on or off.
When speakers gesture, listeners are better able to learn the content. People who were instructed to gesture while learning new information, had better recall of information. That sounds like a good study tip!
It’s not just your audience that will be helped by your gestures, you will be helped as well. Did you know people who are born blind gesture in some of the same ways sighted individuals do? How do they know to gesture? Why do they gesture? They gesture because it seems to be something they are hardwired to do. They gesture because it seems to help the speaker to think and speak more clearly. I often have my students sit on their hands and then tell a story about their weekend or give directions to their favorite restaurant. It is amazing how many of them struggle to think of directions when they can’t move. It might be said you think with your hands. In a study where they asked children to talk about a game they played, those who gestured while speaking told more details and they spoke with fewer hesitations. The authors suggested gesturing reduces cognitive load. It is easier to hold up your hands and say “The fish I caught is this big” than it is to say, “the fish I caught was big. He was about 10 inches long.” Gestures give us a shortcut to speaking.
In addition, gestures beat out the rhythm of the speech. They help us synchronize our words to our speech. Typically, we speak in chunks of about four to five syllables called a phonemic clause. At the end of that chunk, we tend to gesture. Try it for yourself. I wrote the phrases as most people say them (phonemic clause). Say these phrases out loud and see what gestures you do naturally.
I don’t know where they are
I’ve looked everywhere
I simply cannot remember
where I put my keys.
They were right there table
last night.
Read it again. This time, notice you naturally gesture right before the last beat of the phrase. Gestures don’t come after the phrase, they come during the phrase. You can tell if someone has been speech coached poorly because they will gesture after the phrase. It looks unnatural.
Gestures are Good
- They are good for the audience’s attention to your speech.
- They are good for the audience’s recall of the speech.
- They help you as a speaker to be more fluid in speaking.
- They help to reduce your cognitive load.
- They help you keep the rhythm in your speech.
With all this information, you know you should gesture throughout your speech. One way to loosen up and find your own gestures is what I call, “getting funky.” After you have your speech written, sing your speech, say it in a funny accent, or rap it while in the shower. As silly as this sounds, it will help relax you and in those funky practices, you will find you begin having more free-flowing gestures.
Students in Dale Carnegie classes often do the Box Factory activity to help them learn to use their whole bodies in their speech.
Running all around this building was a picket fence about this high.
I walked up this spiral staircase, pushed open a sliding door, and found myself in a big room piled high with boxes.
There were big boxes, middle-sized boxes, and very small boxes.
What NOT to Do with Your Hands
- Do NOT put both hands in your pockets.
- Do NOT jingle keys or change in your pocket.
- Do NOT hold hands clasped behind your back.
- Do NOT fidget with your pen, necklace.
- Do NOT tap or pound on the podium.
- Do NOT rest your hands on the podium.
- Do NOT wring hands.
- Do NOT play with your hair.
- Do NOT fidget with your clothing.
- Do NOT pick your fingernails.
- Do NOT fiddle with notecards.
Pro-Tip
When you feel yourself getting nervous, touch your index finger to your thumb, it is a self-soothing gesture
Advanced Gestures
Some of you are still working on relaxing enough to gesture. That is OK, it takes time and like any other skill, with practice, you will get better. Others of you have spoken long enough you are wanting to take your gestures to the next level, this section is for you.
Sabina Nawaz, speech coach recommends people “air out their armpits” when they gesture. That is her way of reminding people to make their gestures large and noticeable and to move their arms away from their torso. Dale Carnegie Trainer, Larry Prevot, says speakers who keep their arms too close to their body remind him of old westerns where the hero is tied up. The rope is around his chest and arms bound tightly, but below the elbow, his hands are free allowing him to finally escape, “Be that hero today. Remove the perceived constraints that are pinning your upper arms against your chest and start using everything at your disposal.” Darren Tay, Toastmaster’s World Champion, said in a Business Insider interview “It’s common for novice public speakers to have their gestures centered either too close to their face, which suggests nervousness, or too low, which is distracting. He said the ideal center is around the belly button.”
In addition to making the arm movements large, the next pro tip is to gesture palms up.  Which one relaxes your eye? The palm relaxes your eye which is why great public speakers tend to open their palms towards the audience (video included in bonus features below). In the TED talk, Power in the Palm of Your Hand (video included in bonus features below) , Allan Pease tells of a study where speakers had 20 minutes to present a proposal using palm-up gestures, palm down gestures, or pointing gestures. Here’s what he found: The palm-up speakers were described as laid back, friendly, humorous, and engaging. The speakers with the palm up gesture maintained 40% more retention than the speaker who used the palm-down gesture. The palms down speakers were described as authoritative, and the pointing speakers were described with negative adjectives.
How To Stop Shaking When You Are Nervous
In this video, How to Stop Shaking when You Are Nervous, Trace Dominguez explains how New York City Police and Members of the Military stop their hands from shaking when they have an adrenaline response. Tactical and box breathing can help you slow down your rapid heart rate and stimulate the vagus nerve. The slower and deeper you breathe, the more relaxed you feel. This technique is done by taking deep breaths through the nose.
How To Do Box Breathing:
- Exhale all the breath out of your lungs.
- Breathe in for four seconds. As your chest rises and air enters let your mind travel up the side of the box.
- Hold for four seconds and in your mind travel across the top of the box.
- Breathe out for four seconds and let your mind travel down one side of the box.
- Relax for four seconds and let your mind travel across the bottom.
- Repeat at least three times.
According to clinical psychologist, Dr. Symington, This visual of the box “provides a helpful anchor for your attention and quickly allows you to get into the flow of rhythmic breathing.”
Watch this short video, How to Stop Shaking When You’re Nervous, as it relates to box breathing.
Your Body Language
When does your speech credibility begin with an audience? At first glance. People start evaluating you the moment they see you. If you are pacing wildly in the hall, if you are sitting submissively while playing on your phone, if you are in the bathroom before your speech having a pep talk and a member of the audience sees you, that is when they start the credibility meter. The moment you arrive at the speech venue, you should walk, talk, and act with confidence. I once worked for a company that insisted our car was clean inside and out because the client might see it out their office window and begin sizing up our credibility. If you are a college student, consider the fact that every day your classmates see you in class, you are either gaining credibility or losing credibility.
Posture
Your body tells people how you wanted to be treated. Your body tells people what you want them to think of you. Confident posture tells your audience you believe you are a person of power, and you know what you are talking about. A confident posture shows your audience you are “comfortable in your own skin.” When people see someone with good posture and body confidence, they perceive them to have more positive attributes and to have increased competence and power. Your confident posture helps you as well, as Harvard Researcher Amy Cuddy points out, people who hold themselves confidently also feel confident. Individuals with a confident posture had more positive attitudes and were more persistent when engaging in a complex task.
To Move or Not to Move, That is the Question
In some situations, you are expected to stand behind a lectern and in other settings, you are standing there with nothing between you and the audience. You will have to adapt to various contexts in your speaking career. In most settings, it is recommended you put as few barriers between you and the audience as possible. When thinking about movement remember, you are a tree–plant your feet but move your branches naturally in the wind. Ok, you can be a tree that moves a little. When you do decide to walk around, make sure it looks purposeful and not nervous–there is a difference between engaged movement and pacing.
The video in this chapter, Body Language –Gestures and Eye Contact in Public Speaking shows a variety of speakers and how each adapts to the speech situation. As you watch it, pay special attention to their feet and arms. One of the things that I like about this video is that it shows that there is no one definitive way to do gestures. Each speaker’s unique personality comes out in their body movements. I tell my students that being a good speaker is about learning to be comfortable in their own skin and learning their unique way of connecting with the audience.
Movement for Advanced Speakers
For you advanced speakers, it is time to be even more intentional with your movement. Some speakers use the baseball method of movement where they “walk their points”. Imagine a baseball diamond on the floor. When you make your first point, you walk to first base. On your second point, you walk to the second base, and on your third point, you move to the third base. Walking to home plate signals that your speech has come full circle (or full diamond) and you are restating the thesis to show how you are connecting with where you began. This physical representation of your speech can help anchor ideas in the minds of the audience.
Cathy Hollingsworth sugg
ests you use purposeful movement to take your audience with you on the journey.
“For many speakers, the hardest thing to resist is walking aimlessly the whole speech. Then, that movement looks like nervous wandering. Instead, take a few steps during a transition and
STOP
. Stay awhile and talk!
When you move to the next point or start to tell a story, take a few more steps and
STOP.
Stay awhile and talk.”
I learned one of my favorite tricks at a teacher’s retreat. After about an hour of walking around the room teaching, the conference leader looked at us and asked “Do you see where I am standing? Have you noticed every time I make a big point, I stand in the same place?” He went on to tell us throughout the weekend-long conference he had conditioned us to pay attention to his big idea by standing in the same spot every time he drew a conclusion. When he stood in that spot, we knew what he was about to say was important. This same speaker would stomp with one foot at times as he made a point to get our attention. It was like an exclamation point. He even did a hop using both feet once or twice as a double exclamation point.
The distance you are from the audience and the position of your eyes to the audience can also have an effect. You can create intimacy when telling a personal story by walking closer to the audience or even by sitting down. Moving from behind the podium can signal “I am being vulnerable before you.” Making your eyes the same level as the audience can signal we are on the same level (though the room and size of the audience can influence this). The key is whatever you do, make movement intentional and purposeful (imagine me doing a two-footed hop here!).
Enlist the Help of a Friend. Chances are you have some presentation area where you need work. Ask a friend to give you an honest assessment of what you do. For example, I used to rock up and back when I spoke. I had a friend who would move his pointer finger up and back to let me know when I was doing it. It took a lot of practice and several “rockin” speeches, but eventually, I corrected the behavior.
How To Dress for Your Speech
How do you dress for your speech? The answer should be “it depends.” It depends on the context, the audience, the topic, and the occasion. Kelly Stoetzel, TED’s Content Director says the most important thing is you “wear something you feel great in.” She also suggests “Believe it or not, your clothing can earn you an audience connection before you’ve even spoken a word.” Here are a few guidelines to consider:
- Consider the context, topic, and purpose. It may give you credibility to wear a lab coat as you talk about your experience working as a nurse’s assistant. Wearing hiking gear would be appropriate for a speech on how to rappel, and yoga pants are appropriate for a speech about the sun salutation poses. I’m not telling you to dress gimmicky, but to consider what is appropriate for the topic.
- Dress nicer than your audience to enhance your credibility. If you are talking to other college students in your class and they are wearing jeans and t-shirts, wear nice pants and a collared shirt. If you are presenting to business professionals in suits, wear a suit. It can be a mistake to overdress your audience. If you dress too formally, they will think you are untrustworthy and insincere, however, if you dress too casually the audience might not take you seriously. Whatever you wear, consider the impact. Typically, there is a balance between looking credible and looking approachable. For example, a study of college teachers found teachers who dressed in professional attire were perceived as more organized and knowledgeable while those dressed casually were perceived as more approachable.
- Dress professionally to feel credible. Martin McDermott said, “People elevate their behavior to match their attire.” Dressing professionally can make you feel more confident resulting in enhanced cognition and abstract processing.
- Avoid distracting clothing and artifacts. Unless you are comfortable in high heels, you should avoid them in a speech. Be aware that some dress shoes can be very loud and distracting. If you are tempted to fidget with a ring or necklace, it is best not to wear them when you speak.
- Practice in your outfit. It is a good idea to practice your speech in the outfit you will wear to your speech. It will help you identify any issues like sagging straps or an overly tight shirt that restricts gestures.
- Consider the sweat factor. Typically, people perspire more when they are giving a speech. Wear something that minimizes any sweat stains.
- Consider the backdrop.  If possible, get a picture of or visit the venue where you will be speaking to consider how it will impact your clothing choices.
- Consider microphones. If you will be wearing a lapel microphone, you shouldn’t wear a floppy cardigan. If you are wearing a microphone with a battery pack, you will need a belt or defined waistline to clip it onto. If you are wearing an over-the-ear microphone, your dangling earrings may make loud noises that are picked up by the mic. Always ask what the microphone set up will be days before the event so you can dress accordingly.
- Zip it . The best advice about clothing rules I have ever received as a speaker is to always check your fly before you speak.
Social psychologist Erving Goffman asks us to consider we are all like actors on a stage. When we are backstage, we may act one way, and when we are on the front stage, we act another. Actors make intentional choices when performing on the main stage; he called this impression management. As actors, we use props, clothing, artifacts, and nonverbal communication to tell people which “character” we are. If we are successful, the audience will view us the way we want to be viewed. Consider which character you will be and be intentional about how to create that character on your “front stage.”
Thoughts for My Blotchy Friends
Sometimes, I get red blotches that start at my chest and crawl up my neck, and land on my face. I’m not alone. Some of my very best speakers, have the same thing happen. I like to think of it as a sign of great speaking. I don’t want my badge of greatness to distract the audience, so I always consider how my clothing choices can magnify the issue. A crisp white shirt next to my red neck highlights the issue, whereas a black shirt with a nice necklace breaks up the red and doesn’t highlight it so much. If I pull back my hair in a ponytail, there is more of my red neck exposed, so I wear it long.
Of course, the best solution is not to get red. Easy to say, but not so easy to do, huh? Doing deep breathing before a speech, being well prepared, and caring about your speech topic all help. The biggest thing of all is to be aware of your triggers. I get red when I get passionate. If I say, “I love teaching and making a difference in the lives of my students.” I may get red. If I think someone in the audience thinks I’m not competent, I may get red. If I wear a hot, itchy fabric, I may get red. If someone has on a certain perfume or if I eat certain foods, I will get red. For some of us, red happens. If red happens to you, it certainly doesn’t mean you avoid speaking.
If this is you, you can minimize it, and more importantly, when it happens, the audience can still enjoy your speech. When I see it happen to my students as they passionately pursue their topic, I forget to notice. If you get red, you are in good company. Dress to minimize it, breathe deeply, and focus on the message and your audience will too.
Key Takeaways
- Public speaking is a skill and with practice, you can improve. Keep an open mindset.
- Make eye contact with the audience being sure to look in different areas of the room.
- Gestures should be natural. Gestures help both the speaker and the listeners.
- Open palms and larger gestures can make you appear more approachable.
- Use confident body posture, not just during your speech, but any time you are in sight of your audience.
- Dress according to the context, speech topic, and audience. Typically, dress a little bit above your audience.
Extra Resources
Watch These Videos That Were Referenced in the Text
He starts talking about the palm at 4.35
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
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References
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Johnson, T.W., Francis, S.K. and L. D. Burns, L.D. (2007). Appearance management behavior and the five-factor model of personality, Clothing, and Textiles Research Jour nal, 25 (3), 230–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887302X07302982
Kelley, D.H. & Gorham, J. (1988). Effects of immediacy on recall of information. Communication Education, 37 :3, 198-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634528809378719
Lidsky, I. (2016). What Reality Are You Creating for Yourself? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/isaac_lidsky_what_reality_are_you_creating_for_yourself. Standard YouTube License.
McDermott, M. (2014). Speak with Courage: Fifty Insider Strategies for Presenting with Confidence. Bedford.
Nawaz, S. (2017). Awkward or awesome? What your hand gestures say when you’re giving a speech. https://beleaderly.com/what-hand-gestures-say-when-giving-a-speech.
Nazish, N. (2019). How to de-stress in five minutes, according to a Navy Seal. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/nomanazish/2019/05/30/how-to-de-stress-in-5-minutes-or-less-according-to-a-navy-seal/?sh=5223f3c93046
Pease, A. (2013). Body language, the power is in the palm of your hands. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZZ7k8cMA-4 Standard YouTube License.
Ping, R. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2010). Gesturing saves cognitive resources when talking about nonpresent objects. Cognitive Science, 34:4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01102.x
Phillips, P. & Smith, L. (1992). The Effect of Teacher Dress on Student Perceptions. ERIC https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED347151
Prevost, L. (n.d.) Five public speaking tips from the Dale Carnegie Course. https://larryprevost.com/2017/08/dale-carnegie-course-gives-5-tips-for-speaking-with-passion
Reid, A., Lancuba, V. & Morrow, B. (1997). Clothing style and formation of first impressions. Perceptual and Motor Skills 84 (1), 237-238. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.19<IP_ADDRESS>
Science Daily. Study: Body posture affects confidence in your own thoughts. (2009). NewsRx Health & Science, 176. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091005111627.htm
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Media Attributions
- Woman giving a speech © Natasha Hall is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
- computer meeting © Chris Montgomery is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
- Man gesturing © Usman Yousaf
- 86-Box-Breathing-Instructions © mindfulreturn is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license


16.14: Conjunctions
- Correctly identify and use conjunctions in a sentence
Conjunctions are the words that join together sentences, phrases, and other words. Conjunctions are divided into several categories, each of which follows different rules. We will discuss coordinating conjunctions, adverbial conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.
This SchoolHouse rock video on conjunctions has withstood the test of time—made in 1973, it remains relevant and entertaining today. Watch it for an overview of what conjunctions are and what they do.
You can view the transcript for “Schoolhouse Rock: Grammar- Conjunction Junction Music Video” here (opens in new window).
Coordinating Conjunctions
The most common conjunctions are and , or , and but . These are all coordinating conjunctions . Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join, or coordinate, two or more equivalent items (such as words, phrases, or sentences). The mnemonic acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the most common coordinating conjunctions: for , and , nor , but , or , yet , and so . Here are some examples of them used in sentences:
- Nuclear-powered artificial hearts proved to be complicated, bulky, and expensive.
- Any external injury or internal injury puts patients at risk of uncontrolled bleeding.
- The current from the storage batteries can power lights, but the current for appliances must be modified within an inverter.
Are the correct coordinating conjunctions being used in each of the following sentences? Explain your reasoning:
- I love boxing or sewing. They’re both a lot of fun.
- Martin is pretty good at writing, for Jaden is better.
- Juana had to choose. Would she join the red team and the blue team?
[reveal-answer q=”843777″]Show Answer[/reveal-answer]
[hidden-answer a=”843777″]
- The conjunction or presents an alternative. However, the second sentence indicates that the speaker enjoys both activities. The correct sentence would use and : “I love boxing and sewing. They’re both a lot of fun.”
- The conjunction for presents a reason. It’s unlikely that Jaden being better is the reason Martin is pretty good at writing, so a different conjunction should be used. But would be a good fit here, since the ideas contrast: “Martin is pretty good at writing, but Jaden is better.”
- The conjunction and presents non-contrasting items or ideas. Since the first sentence sets up a choice, we know that Juana can’t be on both teams. The conjunction or presents an alternative and is the correct conjunction to use in this sentence: “Would she join the red team or the blue team?”
[/hidden-answer]
As you can see from the examples above, a comma only appears before these conjunctions sometimes. So how can you tell if you need a comma or not? There are three general rules to help you decide.
Rule 1: Joining Two Complete Ideas
Let’s look back at one of our example sentences:
The current from the storage batteries can power lights, but the current for appliances must be modified within an inverter.
There are two complete ideas in this sentence (a complete idea has both a subject and a verb). Because each of these ideas could stand alone as a sentence, the coordinating conjunction that joins them must be preceded by a comma. Otherwise you’ll have a run-on sentence.
Run-on sentences are one of the most common errors in college-level writing. Mastering the partnership between commas and coordinating conjunctions will go a long way toward resolving many run-on sentence issues in your writing. We’ll talk more about run-ons and strategies to avoid them in a later section.
Rule 2: Joining Two Similar Items
What if there is only one complete idea but two subjects or two verbs? Consider the following examples:
- Any external injury or internal injury puts patients at risk of uncontrolled bleeding.
- In the 1960s, artificial heart devices did not fit well and tended to obstruct the flow of venous blood into the right atrium.
The first sentence has two subjects: external injury and internal injury . They are joined with the conjunction or . The second sentence has two verbs: did not fit well and tended to obstruct . They are joined with the conjunction and . Neither sentence requires additional punctuation.
Rule 3: Joining Three or More Similar Items
What do you do if there are three or more items?
- Anna loves to run, David loves to hike, and Luz loves to dance.
- Fishing, hunting, and gathering were once the only ways for people do get food.
- Emanuel has a very careful schedule planned for tomorrow. He needs to work, study, exercise, eat, and clean.
As you can see in the examples above, there is a comma after each item, including the item just before the conjunction ( and ). There is a bit of contention about that final comma, but most styles prefer to keep include it (it’s called the serial comma). We discuss the serial comma in more depth later as well.
Many students are taught—and some style guides maintain—that English sentences should not begin with a coordinating conjunction. However, there is nothing grammatically incorrect about doing so. The practice is likely discouraged because it is thought to help students avoid creating sentence fragments, but there is nothing wrong with starting a sentence with a coordinating conjunction.
Adverbial Conjunctions
Adverbial conjunctions , or conjunctive adverbs, link two separate thoughts or sentences. When used to interrupt thoughts, as in the first example, below, a comma is required on either side of the conjunction. When used to separate complete ideas (independent clauses, which each contain a subject and a verb), a semicolon is required before the conjunction and a comma after. This is the case in the second example, below:
- The first artificial hearts were made of smooth silicone rubber, which apparently caused excessive clotting and, therefore , uncontrolled bleeding.
- The Kedeco produces 1200 watts in 17 mph winds using a 16-foot rotor; on the other hand , the Dunlite produces 2000 watts in 25 mph winds.
Adverbial conjunctions include the following words; however, it is important to note that this is by no means a complete list.
| therefore | however | in other words |
| thus | then | otherwise |
| nevertheless | on the other hand | in fact |
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are word pairs that work together to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence.
The following video explains this type of conjunction and describes the five most common pairs.
You can view the transcript for “Correlative Conjunctions” here (opens in new window) .
The table below shows some examples of correlative conjunctions used in sentences:
| Correlative Conjunction | Example |
|---|---|
| either . . . or | You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office. (Either do, or prepare) |
| neither . . . nor | Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well. |
| not only . . . but (also) | He is not only handsome but also brilliant. (Not only A but also B) |
| Not only is he handsome, but also he is brilliant.  (It’s up to you) |
| Whether you stay or you go, the film will start at 8 pm. (It’s not up to you) | |
| just as . . . so | Just as lots of Americans love basketball, so many Canadians love ice hockey. |
| as much . . . as | Football is as much an addiction as it is a sport. |
| no sooner . . . than | No sooner did she learn to ski than the snow began to thaw. |
| rather . . . than | I would rather swim than surf. |
| the . . . the | The more you practice dribbling, the better you will be at it. |
| as . . . as | Football is as fast as hockey (is (fast)). |
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions , are conjunctions that join an independent clause and a dependent clause. Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions:
- The heart undergoes two cardiac cycle periods: diastole, when blood enters the ventricles, and systole, when the ventricles contract and blood is pumped out of the heart.
- Whenever an electron acquires enough energy to leave its orbit, the atom is positively charged.
- She did the favor so that he would owe her one.
Let’s take a moment to look back at the previous examples. Can you see the pattern in comma usage? The commas aren’t dependent on the presence of subordinating conjunctions—they’re dependent on the placement of clauses they’re in. Let’s revisit a couple of examples and see if we can figure out the exact rules:
-
The heart undergoes two cardiac cycle periods: diastole,
when
blood enters the ventricles, and systole,
when
the ventricles contract and blood is pumped out of the heart.
- These clauses are both extra information: information that is good to know, but not necessary for the meaning of the sentence. This means they need commas on either side.
-
Whenever
an electron acquires enough energy to leave its orbit, the atom is positively charged.
- In this sentence, the dependent clause comes before an independent clause. This means it should be followed by a comma.
-
She did the favor
so that
he would owe her one.
- In this sentence, the independent clause comes before a dependent clause. This means no comma is required.
The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language are shown in the table below:
| after | although | as | as far as | as if | as long as | as soon as |
| as though | because | before | even if | even though | every time | if |
| in order that | since | so | so that | than | though | unless |
| until | when | whenever | where | whereas | wherever | while |
Watch this video from Khan Academy to learn more about when and how to use subordinating conjunctions.
You can view the transcript for “Subordinating Conjunctions” here (opens in new window) .
https://lumenlearning.h5p.com/content/1290622574259907648/embed
[reveal-answer q=”769106″]Explain Answers[/reveal-answer]
[hidden-answer a=”769106″]Here are the sentences with suggested conjunctions. These are not the only possible solutions. If you answered something different, compare your reasoning with the explanation provided below.
-
Karni’s roommate, Joana, decided to drive to work
; therefore,
Karni rode into the city with her.
- As the punctuation currently exists (a semicolon followed by a comma), the sentence needs an adverbial conjunction. However, using therefore here feels a little stuffy. If you change the semicolon to a comma and remove the second comma, you can then use the coordinating conjunction so instead, which feels more natural: “. . . , so Karni rode into the city with her.”
-
They needed to turn left on 140th Street,
but
that street was under construction.
- Since the blank is preceded by a comma, a coordinating conjunction should go here. The conjunction but has the most appropriate meaning in this sentence.
-
Before
Karni could say anything,
however
, Joana had already found an alternate route.
- Since there is no comma after the first blank, we know we need a subordinating conjunction here. Before makes the most sense here.
- Since this blank appears in the middle of an idea, we know we need an adverbial conjunction here. However makes the most sense.
-
No sooner
did Karni arrive at work
than
her boss told her she would be working with her coworker Ian on her next project.
- The two blanks in this sentence indicate a correlative conjunction. The sentence indicates the two things happened at the same time, so no sooner . . . than is the correct option here.
-
Karni was really impressed by Ian’s professional accomplishments,
but
she was anxious about working with him.
- Since the blank is preceded by a comma, a coordinating conjunction should go here. The conjunction but has the most appropriate meaning in this sentence.
-
Karni thought Ian was annoying, unpredictable,
and
reckless.
- Since the blank is preceded by a comma, a coordinating conjunction should go here. The conjunction and has the most appropriate meaning in this sentence.
-
However
, Karni was willing to put aside her opinions to get the job done.
- Since the blank is followed by a comma, we know we need an adverbial conjunction here. However makes the sense here.
-
She knew Ian would put in his best effort
while
they worked together
, so
she felt she could do no less—
even if
he frustrated her.
- Since there is no comma before or after the first blank, we know we need a subordinating conjunction here. While makes the most sense here, but as long as or if would also work.
- Since the blank is preceded by a comma, a coordinating conjunction should go here. The conjunction so has the most appropriate meaning in this sentence.
- This blank is a little trickier; it is preceded by a dash, which can stand in for a lot of different punctuation marks. A subordinating conjunction is likely the best solution. We’ve used even if here, but there are a lot of possibilities, including even though .
-
Personal relationships are often
as
important
as
professional skills.
- The two blanks in this sentence indicate a correlative conjunction. The sentence indicates two things of equal importance, so as . . . as is the correct option here.
[/hidden-answer]
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and Adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Conjunction (grammar). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Basic Patterns and Elements of the Sentence. Authored by : David McMurrey. Located at : https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/textbook/twsent.html . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Correlative conjunctions. Authored by : David Rheinstrom. Provided by : Khan Academy. Located at : https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/partsofspeech/conjunctions/v/correlative-conjunctions . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
- Image of compass. Authored by : Douglas Santos. Provided by : The Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/search/?q=coordinate&i=223910 . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Image of thought bubbles. Authored by : icon 54. Provided by : The Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/search/?q=thoughts&i=393828 . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Image of balanced scales. Authored by : Juan Pablo Bravo. Provided by : The Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/balance/106372/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Image of unbalanced scales. Authored by : Juan Pablo Bravo. Provided by : The Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/balance/106371/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Subordinate Conjunctions. Authored by : Khan Academy. Provided by : Khan Academy. Located at : https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/parts-of-speech-the-preposition-and-the-conjunction/introduction-to-conjunctions/v/subordinating-conjunctions . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Schoolhouse Rock: Grammar - Conjunction Junction Music Video. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=RPoBE-E8VOc&feature=emb_logo . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License


4.6: Behavioral Interview Questions
Interview Questions
Why do good interview questions matter? Cost. It costs the organization a significant amount of money when them make a bad hiring decision. Here are some of the costs to consider:
Fig. 1: Overtime, training, productivity, absenteeism, morale, advertising manager/supervisor time.
Some common problems that can lead to a bad hiring selection include:
Fig. 1 Missing information during the interview, not considering the the job or organizational fit, asking illegal or irrelevan questions, poor applicant exprience, bias and sterortype, incomplete notes, assumptions, pressure to fill the position.
How do we avoid these problems?
Use structured and reliable selection processes including:
- Behavioral Based Interviewing
- Situational Questions
- Job and Organization Fit
- Job Simulations
- Realistic Job Previews
Behavioral Based Interviewing
Past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior in similar situations. Ex. How someone handled a difficult customer in the past is how they will likely handle a difficult customer in the future. This technique gathers information about what a candidate HAS DONE .
This approach focuses on:
- Gathering job-related information
- Learning about past behavior
- Finding a good “fit”
- Legal Considerations
In order to get a candidate to share the most real information, you will need to start by building rapport.
Building Rapport will:
- Set the tone for the interview
- Give you some basic information about the candidate
One common way to build rapport is to ask the candidate softball questions . Softball questions are easy to answer questions. They help the candidate feel more comfortable and build their confidence. Examples of softball questions include:
- I see you used to work at ABS Company. Tell me more about your work duties in that job.
- What was your favorite part of working at ABS Company?
- What was your favorite class in college and why?
STAR's
Behavioral questions are looking for answers anchored in STAR’s.
S.T.A.R. is a useful acronym and an effective formula for structuring your behavioral interview response. Let’s start by breaking down the formula:
- Situation (20%), explain the situation so that your interviewer understands the context of your example, they do not need to know every detail!
- Task (10%), talk about the task that you took responsibility for completing or the goal of your efforts.
- Action (60%), describe the actions that you personally took to complete the task or reach the end goal. Highlight skills or character traits addressed in the question.
- Result (10%), explain the positive outcomes or results generated by your actions or efforts. Here, it is important to highlight quantifiable results. You may also want to emphasize what you learned from the experience or your key takeaways.
Here is an example of using the STAR method:
STAR method for the interviewer:
S/T = Situation or Task
- Example of a work-related behavior.
- This is the WHY.
- It provides the background or context of the situation.
- Example: A customer asked for the brunch menu and was upset when informed brunch ended 20 minutes ago.
A = Action
- Considered the heart of the STAR.
- Tells you what the candidate DID about the situation.
- It is the HOW of the STAR.
- It can also tell you what a candidate did NOT do.
- Example: I offered suggestions on our lunch menu.
R = Result
- This tells you how things turned out.
- It can also tell you what a candidate would change if this happened again.
- Example: The customer stayed and ordered lunch.
Partial STARS
Candidates don't naturally speak in STARs. Sometimes, you'll need to ask for more information. These questions can help:
- What was the situation?
- What did you do about it?
- How did it turn out?
False STARs
Not all answer will fit into the STAR method. For example:
- Vague answers - they sound good but no specifics were provided.
- Opinions - how the candidate thinks or feels but no real situation is shared.
- Theoretical or future-oriented - these tell us what they would do , not what they have done .
False STARs can simply be false starts! Ask follow up questions to see if there is a real example they can share.
This information is included in a PowerPoint available as an attachment.


7.2: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Derive chemical equations from narrative descriptions of chemical reactions.
- Write and balance chemical equations in molecular, total ionic, and net ionic formats.
An earlier chapter of this text introduced the use of element symbols to represent individual atoms. When atoms gain or lose electrons to yield ions, or combine with other atoms to form molecules, their symbols are modified or combined to generate chemical formulas that appropriately represent these species. Extending this symbolism to represent both the identities and the relative quantities of substances undergoing a chemical (or physical) change involves writing and balancing a chemical equation . Consider as an example the reaction between one methane molecule (CH 4 ) and two diatomic oxygen molecules (O 2 ) to produce one carbon dioxide molecule (CO 2 ) and two water molecules (H 2 O). The chemical equation representing this process is provided in the upper half of Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): , with space-filling molecular models shown in the lower half of the figure.
This example illustrates the fundamental aspects of any chemical equation:
- The substances undergoing reaction are called reactants , and their formulas are placed on the left side of the equation.
- The substances generated by the reaction are called products , and their formulas are placed on the right side of the equation.
- Plus signs (+) separate individual reactant and product formulas, and an arrow separates the reactant and product (left and right) sides of the equation.
- The relative numbers of reactant and product species are represented by coefficients (numbers placed immediately to the left of each formula). A coefficient of 1 is typically omitted.
It is common practice to use the smallest possible whole-number coefficients in a chemical equation, as is done in this example. Realize, however, that these coefficients represent the relative numbers of reactants and products, and, therefore, they may be correctly interpreted as ratios. Methane and oxygen react to yield carbon dioxide and water in a 1:2:1:2 ratio. This ratio is satisfied if the numbers of these molecules are, respectively, 1-2-1-2, or 2-4-2-4, or 3-6-3-6, and so on (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Likewise, these coefficients may be interpreted with regard to any amount (number) unit, and so this equation may be correctly read in many ways, including:
- One methane molecule and two oxygen molecules react to yield one carbon dioxide molecule and two water molecules.
- One dozen methane molecules and two dozen oxygen molecules react to yield one dozen carbon dioxide molecules and two dozen water molecules.
- One mole of methane molecules and 2 moles of oxygen molecules react to yield 1 mole of carbon dioxide molecules and 2 moles of water molecules.
Balancing Equations
The chemical equation described above in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) is balanced , meaning that equal numbers of atoms for each element involved in the reaction are represented on the reactant and product sides. This is a requirement the equation must satisfy to be consistent with the law of conservation of matter. It may be confirmed by simply summing the numbers of atoms on either side of the arrow and comparing these sums to ensure they are equal. Note that the number of atoms for a given element is calculated by multiplying the coefficient of any formula containing that element by the element’s subscript in the formula. If an element appears in more than one formula on a given side of the equation, the number of atoms represented in each must be computed and then added together. For example, both product species in the example reaction, CO 2 and H 2 O, contain the element oxygen, and so the number of oxygen atoms on the product side of the equation is
\[\left(1 CO_2 \text { molecule } \times \frac{2 O \text { atoms }}{ CO_2 \text { molecule }}\right)+\left(2 H_2 O \text { molecules } \times \frac{1 O \text { atom }}{ H_2 O \text { molecule }}\right)=4 O \text { atoms } \nonumber \]
The equation for the reaction between methane and oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water is confirmed to be balanced per this approach, as shown here:
\[\ce{CH4 + 2 O2 -> CO2 + 2 H2O} \nonumber \]
| Element | Reactants | Products | Balanced? |
|---|---|---|---|
| C | 1 × 1 = 1 | 1 × 1 = 1 | 1 = 1, yes |
| H | 4 × 1 = 4 | 2 × 2 = 4 | 4 = 4, yes |
| O | 2 × 2 = 4 | (1 × 2) + (2 × 1) = 4 | 4 = 4, yes |
A balanced chemical equation often may be derived from a qualitative description of some chemical reaction by a fairly simple approach known as balancing by inspection. Consider as an example the decomposition of water to yield molecular hydrogen and oxygen. This process is represented qualitatively by an unbalanced chemical equation:
\[\ce{H2O -> H2 + O2} \tag{unbalanced} \]
Comparing the number of \(\ce{H}\) and \(\ce{O}\) atoms on either side of this equation confirms its imbalance:
| Element | Reactants | Products | Balanced? |
|---|---|---|---|
| H | 1 × 2 = 2 | 1 × 2 = 2 | 2 = 2, yes |
| O | 1 × 1 = 1 | 1 × 2 = 2 | 1 ≠ 2, no |
The numbers of H atoms on the reactant and product sides of the equation are equal, but the numbers of O atoms are not. To achieve balance, the coefficients of the equation may be changed as needed. Keep in mind, of course, that the formula subscripts define, in part, the identity of the substance, and so these cannot be changed without altering the qualitative meaning of the equation. For example, changing the reactant formula from H 2 O to H 2 O 2 would yield balance in the number of atoms, but doing so also changes the reactant’s identity (it’s now hydrogen peroxide and not water). The O atom balance may be achieved by changing the coefficient for H 2 O to 2.
\[\ce{2H2O -> H2 + O2} \tag{unbalanced} \]
| Element | Reactants | Products | Balanced? |
|---|---|---|---|
| H | 2 × 2 = 4 | 1 × 2 = 2 | 4 ≠ 2, no |
| O | 2 × 1 = 2 | 1 × 2 = 2 | 2 = 2, yes |
The H atom balance was upset by this change, but it is easily reestablished by changing the coefficient for the H 2 product to 2.
\[\ce{2H2O -> 2H2 + O2} \tag{unbalanced} \]
| Element | Reactants | Products | Balanced? |
|---|---|---|---|
| H | 2 × 2 = 4 | 2 × 2 = 4 | 4 = 4, yes |
| O | 2 × 1 = 2 | 1 × 2 = 2 | 2 = 2, yes |
These coefficients yield equal numbers of both H and O atoms on the reactant and product sides, and the balanced equation is, therefore:
\[\ce{H2O -> H2 + O2} \tag{balanced} \]
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Balancing Chemical Equations
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of molecular nitrogen (N 2 ) and oxygen (O 2 ) to form dinitrogen pentoxide.
Solution
First, write the unbalanced equation.
\[\ce{N2 + O2 -> N2O5} \tag{unbalanced} \]
Next, count the number of each type of atom present in the unbalanced equation.
| Element | Reactants | Products | Balanced? |
|---|---|---|---|
| N | 1 2 = 2 | 1 2 = 2 | 2 = 2, yes |
| O | 1 2 = 2 | 1 5 = 5 | 2 ≠ 5, no |
Though nitrogen is balanced, changes in coefficients are needed to balance the number of oxygen atoms. To balance the number of oxygen atoms, a reasonable first attempt would be to change the coefficients for the O 2 and N 2 O 5 to integers that will yield 10 O atoms (the least common multiple for the O atom subscripts in these two formulas).
\[\ce{N2 + 5O2 -> 2N2O5} \tag{unbalanced} \]
| Element | Reactants | Products | Balanced? |
|---|---|---|---|
| N | 1 × 2 = 2 | 2 × 2 = 4 | 2 ≠ 4, no |
| O | 5 × 2 = 10 | 2 × 5 = 10 | 10 = 10, yes |
The N atom balance has been upset by this change; it is restored by changing the coefficient for the reactant N 2 to 2.
\[\ce{2N2 + 5O2 -> 2N2O5} \tag{balanced} \]
| Element | Reactants | Products | Balanced? |
|---|---|---|---|
| N | 2 × 2 = 4 | 2 × 2 = 4 | 4 = 4, yes |
| O | 5 × 2 = 10 | 2 × 5 = 10 | 10 = 10, yes |
The numbers of N and O atoms on either side of the equation are now equal, and so the equation is balanced.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Write a balanced equation for the decomposition of ammonium nitrate to form molecular nitrogen, molecular oxygen, and water. (Hint: Balance oxygen last, since it is present in more than one molecule on the right side of the equation.)
- Answer
-
\[\ce{2NH4NO3 -> 2N2 = O2 + 4H2O} \nonumber \]
It is sometimes convenient to use fractions instead of integers as intermediate coefficients in the process of balancing a chemical equation. When balance is achieved, all the equation’s coefficients may then be multiplied by a whole number to convert the fractional coefficients to integers without upsetting the atom balance. For example, consider the reaction of ethane (C 2 H 6 ) with oxygen to yield H 2 O and CO 2 , represented by the unbalanced equation:
\[\ce{C2H6 + O2 -> H2O + CO2} \tag{unbalanced} \]
Following the usual inspection approach, one might first balance C and H atoms by changing the coefficients for the two product species, as shown:
\[\ce{C2H6 + O2 -> 3H2O + 2CO2} \tag{unbalanced} \]
This results in seven O atoms on the product side of the equation, an odd number—no integer coefficient can be used with the O 2 reactant to yield an odd number, so a fractional coefficient, is used instead to yield a provisional balanced equation:
\[\ce{C2H6 + 7/2 O2 -> 3H2O + 2CO2} \tag{unbalanced} \]
A conventional balanced equation with integer-only coefficients is derived by multiplying each coefficient by 2:
\[\ce{2C2H6 + 7 O2 -> 6H2O + 4CO2} \tag{balanced} \]
Finally with regard to balanced equations, recall that convention dictates use of the smallest whole-number coefficients . Although the equation for the reaction between molecular nitrogen and molecular hydrogen to produce ammonia is, indeed, balanced,
\[\ce{3N2 + 9 H2 -> 6NH3} \nonumber \]
the coefficients are not the smallest possible integers representing the relative numbers of reactant and product molecules. Dividing each coefficient by the greatest common factor, 3, gives the preferred equation:
\[\ce{N2 + 3 H2 -> 2NH3} \nonumber \]
Additional Information in Chemical Equations
The physical states of reactants and products in chemical equations very often are indicated with a parenthetical abbreviation following the formulas. Common abbreviations include s for solids, l for liquids, g for gases, and aq for substances dissolved in water ( aqueous solutions , as introduced in the preceding chapter). These notations are illustrated in the example equation here:
\[\ce{2Na(s) + 2 H2O(l) -> 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)} \nonumber \]
This equation represents the reaction that takes place when sodium metal is placed in water. The solid sodium reacts with liquid water to produce molecular hydrogen gas and the ionic compound sodium hydroxide (a solid in pure form, but readily dissolved in water).
Special conditions necessary for a reaction are sometimes designated by writing a word or symbol above or below the equation’s arrow. For example, a reaction carried out by heating may be indicated by the uppercase Greek letter delta (\(\ce{Δ}\)) over the arrow.
\[\ce{CaCO3(s) ->[\Delta] CaO(s) + CO2(g)} \nonumber \]
Other examples of these special conditions will be encountered in more depth in later chapters.
Equations for Ionic Reactions
Given the abundance of water on earth, it stands to reason that a great many chemical reactions take place in aqueous media. When ions are involved in these reactions, the chemical equations may be written with various levels of detail appropriate to their intended use. To illustrate this, consider a reaction between ionic compounds taking place in an aqueous solution. When aqueous solutions of CaCl 2 and AgNO 3 are mixed, a reaction takes place producing aqueous Ca(NO 3 ) 2 and solid AgCl:
\[\ce{CaCl2(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 AgCl(s)} \nonumber \]
This balanced equation, derived in the usual fashion, is called a molecular equation because it doesn’t explicitly represent the ionic species that are present in solution. When ionic compounds dissolve in water, they may dissociate into their constituent ions, which are subsequently dispersed homogenously throughout the resulting solution (a thorough discussion of this important process is provided in the chapter on solutions). Ionic compounds dissolved in water are, therefore, more realistically represented as dissociated ions, in this case:
\[\begin{aligned}
\ce{CaCl2(aq)} & \ce{-> Ca^{2+}(aq) + 2 Cl^{-}(aq)} \\[4pt]
\ce{2 AgNO3(aq)} &\ce{->2 Ag^{+}(aq) + 2 NO3^{-}(aq)} \\[4pt]
\ce{Ca(NO3)2(aq)} &\ce{-> Ca^{2+}(aq) + 2 NO3^{-}(aq)}
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Unlike these three ionic compounds, \(\ce{AgCl}\) does not dissolve in water to a significant extent, as signified by its physical state notation, s .
Explicitly representing all dissolved ions results in a complete ionic equation . In this particular case, the formulas for the dissolved ionic compounds are replaced by formulas for their dissociated ions:
\[\ce{Ca^{2+}(aq) + 2 Cl^{-}(aq) + 2 Ag^{+}(aq) + 2 NO3^{-}(aq) -> Ca^{2+}(aq) + 2 NO3^{-}(aq) + 2 AgCl (s)} \nonumber \]
Examining this equation shows that two chemical species are present in identical form on both sides of the arrow, Ca 2 + ( aq ) and These spectator ions —ions whose presence is required to maintain charge neutrality—are neither chemically nor physically changed by the process, and so they may be eliminated from the equation to yield a more succinct representation called a net ionic equation :
\[ \begin{align*} \ce{\cancel{Ca^{2+}(aq)} + 2 Cl^{-}(aq) + 2 Ag^{+}(aq) + \cancel{2 NO3^{-}(aq)}} &\ce{-> \cancel{Ca^{2+}(aq)} + \cancel{2 NO3^{-}(aq)} + 2 AgCl (s)} \\[4pt] \ce{2 Cl^{-}(aq) + 2 Ag^{+}(aq) } &\ce{-> 2 AgCl (s)} \end{align*} \nonumber \]
Following the convention of using the smallest possible integers as coefficients, this equation is then written:
\[\ce{Cl^{-}(aq) + Ag^{+}(aq) -> AgCl (s)} \nonumber \]
This net ionic equation indicates that solid silver chloride may be produced from dissolved chloride and silver(I) ions, regardless of the source of these ions. These molecular and complete ionic equations provide additional information, namely, the ionic compounds used as sources of Cl − and Ag + .
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\): Ionic and Molecular Equations
When carbon dioxide is dissolved in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, the mixture reacts to yield aqueous sodium carbonate and liquid water. Write balanced molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equations for this process.
Solution
Begin by identifying formulas for the reactants and products and arranging them properly in chemical equation form:
\[\ce{CO2(aq) + NaOH(aq) -> Na2CO3(aq) + H2O (l)} \tag{unbalanced} \]
Balance is achieved easily in this case by changing the coefficient for NaOH to 2, resulting in the molecular equation for this reaction:
\[\ce{CO2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2CO3(aq) + H2O (l)} \nonumber \]
The two dissolved ionic compounds, \(\ce{NaOH}\) and \(\ce{Na2CO3}\), can be represented as dissociated ions to yield the complete ionic equation:
\[\ce{CO2(aq) + 2Na^{+}(aq) + OH^{-}(aq) -> 2Na^{+}(aq) + CO3^{2-}(aq) + H2O (l)} \nonumber \]
Finally, identify the spectator ion(s), in this case Na + ( aq ), and remove it from each side of the equation to generate the net ionic equation:
\[\ce{CO2(aq) + \cancel{2Na^{+}(aq)} + OH^{-}(aq) -> \cancel{2Na^{+}(aq)} + CO3^{2-}(aq) + H2O (l)} \nonumber \]
\[\ce{CO2(aq) + OH^{-}(aq) -> CO3^{2-}(aq) + H2O (l)} \nonumber \]
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Diatomic chlorine and sodium hydroxide (lye) are commodity chemicals produced in large quantities, along with diatomic hydrogen, via the electrolysis of brine, according to the following unbalanced equation:
\[\ce{NaCl(aq) + H2O (l) ->[\text{electricity}] NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)} \nonumber \]
Write balanced molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equations for this process.
- Answer
-
\[\begin{align*}
\ce{2 NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) &-> 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)} \tag{molecular} \\[4pt]
\ce{2 Na^{+}(aq) +2 Cl^{-}(aq) + 2 H2O(l) &-> 2 Na^{+}(aq) + 2 OH^{-}(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)} \tag{complete ionic}\\[4pt]
\ce{2 Cl^{-}(aq) + 2 H2O (l) &-> 2 OH^{-}(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)} \tag{net ionic}
\end{align*} \]


3.13: Chamber Music
Chamber music, which is a broad category of music not a specific genre, is not unique to the Classical era. We certainly encountered chamber music in our study of the Baroque.
Haydn, Mozart, and the Classical Style
Joseph Haydn is generally credited with creating the modern form of chamber music as we know it. In 83 string quartets, 45 piano trios, and numerous string trios, duos and wind ensembles, Haydn established the conversational style of composition and the overall form that was to dominate the world of chamber music for the next two centuries.
An example of the conversational mode of composition is Haydn’s string quartet Op. 20, No. 4 in D major. In the first movement, after a statement of the main theme by all the instruments, the first violin breaks into a triplet figure, supported by the second violin, viola and cello. The cello answers with its own triplet figure, then the viola, while the other instruments play a secondary theme against this movement. Unlike counterpoint, where each part plays essentially the same melodic role as the others, here each instrument contributes its own character, its own comment on the music as it develops.
Haydn also settled on an overall form for his chamber music compositions, which would become the standard, with slight variations, to the present day. The characteristic Haydn string quartet has four movements:
- An opening movement in sonata form , usually with two contrasting themes, followed by a development section where the thematic material is transformed and transposed, and ending with a recapitulation of the initial two themes.
- A lyrical movement in a slow or moderate tempo, sometimes built out of three sections that repeat themselves in the order A–B–C–A–B–C, and sometimes a set of variations.
- A minuet or scherzo , a light movement in three quarter time, with a main section, a contrasting trio section, and a repeat of the main section.
- A fast finale section in rondo form, a series of contrasting sections with a main refrain section opening and closing the movement, and repeating between each section.
His innovations earned Haydn the title “father of the string quartet,” and he was recognized by his contemporaries as the leading composer of his time. But he was by no means the only composer developing new modes of chamber music. Even before Haydn, many composers were already experimenting with new forms. Giovanni Battista Sammartini, Ignaz Holzbauer, and Franz Xaver Richter wrote precursors of the string quartet.
If Haydn created the conversational style of composition, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart greatly expanded its vocabulary. His chamber music added numerous masterpieces to the chamber music repertoire. Mozart’s seven piano trios and two piano quartets were the first to apply the conversational principle to chamber music with piano. Haydn’s piano trios are essentially piano sonatas with the violin and cello playing mostly supporting roles, doubling the treble and bass lines of the piano score. But Mozart gives the strings an independent role, using them as a counter to the piano, and adding their individual voices to the chamber music conversation.
Mozart introduced the newly invented clarinet into the chamber music arsenal, with the Kegelstatt Trio for viola, clarinet and piano, K. 498, and the Quintet for Clarinet and String Quartet, K. 581. He also tried other innovative ensembles, including the quintet for violin, two violas, cello, and horn, K. 407, quartets for flute and strings, and various wind instrument combinations. He wrote six string quintets for two violins, two violas and cello, which explore the rich tenor tones of the violas, adding a new dimension to the string quartet conversation.
Mozart’s string quartets are considered the pinnacle of the classical art. The six string quartets that he dedicated to Haydn, his friend and mentor, inspired the elder composer to say to Mozart’s father, “I tell you before God as an honest man that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by reputation. He has taste, and, what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition.”
Many other composers wrote chamber compositions during this period that were popular at the time and are still played today.Luigi Boccherini, Spanish composer and cellist, wrote nearly a hundred string quartets, and more than one hundred quintets for two violins, viola and two cellos. In this innovative ensemble, later used by Schubert, Boccherini gives flashy, virtuosic solos to the principal cello, as a showcase for his own playing. Violinist Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf and cellist Johann Baptist Wanhal, who both played pickup quartets with Haydn on second violin and Mozart on viola, were popular chamber music composers of the period.
Listen: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: String Quintet No. 4, K. 516
Please listen to the first movement played by Roxana Pavel Goldstein, Elizabeth Choi, violins; Elias Goldstein, Sally Chisholm, violas; Jocelyn Butler, cello.
An audio element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can listen to it online here: http://pb.libretexts.org/map/?p=206
From Home to Hall
The turn of the 19th century saw dramatic changes in society and in music technology which had far-reaching effects on the way chamber music was composed and played.
Collapse of the Aristocratic System
Throughout the 18th century, the composer was normally an employee of an aristocrat, and the chamber music he composed was for the pleasure of and the performance by aristocratic amateurs. Haydn, for example, was an employee of Nikolaus I, Prince Esterházy, a music lover and amateur baryton player, for whom Haydn wrote many of his string trios. Mozart wrote three string quartets for the King of Prussia, Frederick William II, a cellist. Many of Beethoven’s quartets were first performed with patron Count Andrey Razumovsky on second violin. Boccherini composed for the king of Spain.
With the bankruptcy of the aristocracy and new social orders throughout Europe, composers increasingly had to make their own ways by selling and performing compositions. They often gave subscription concerts, renting a hall and collecting the receipts from the performance. Increasingly, they wrote chamber music not only for rich amateurs to perform, but for professional musicians playing to a paying audience.
Changes in the Structure of Stringed Instruments
At the beginning of the 19th century, luthiers developed new methods of constructing the violin, viola and cello that gave these instruments a richer tone, more volume, and more carrying power. Also at this time, bowmakers made the violin bow longer, with a thicker ribbon of hair under higher tension. This improved projection, and also made possible new bowing techniques. In 1820, Louis Spohr invented the chinrest, which gave violinists more freedom of movement in their left hands, for a more nimble technique. These changes contributed to the effectiveness of public performances in large halls, and expanded the repertoire of techniques available to chamber music composers.
Invention of the Pianoforte
The pianoforte was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori at the beginning of the 18th century, but not until the end of that century, with technical improvements in its construction, did it become an effective instrument for performance. The improved pianoforte was immediately adopted by Mozart and other composers, who began composing chamber ensembles with the piano playing a leading role. The piano was to become more and more dominant through the 19th century, so much so that many composers, such as Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin, wrote almost exclusively for solo piano.
Contributors and Attributions
- Authored by : Elliott Jones. Provided by : Santa Ana College. Located at : http://www.sac.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Chamber music. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_music . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


4: Composition/Design Systems
Discussion:
Whether drawing or painting a still-life, portrait, landscape, historical subject, or abstract composition, the types of forms, objects, shapes, and marks placed in the visual field play a part in the success of the artwork. As we’ve learned, heavier objects are often associated with the bottom of the visual field and lighter forms towards the top.
When looking at shapes within a visual field is often useful to distinguish between subject and background, or figure and ground. The subject is referred to as the positive space and the area around the subject is referred to as the negative space. When the human figure is the subject, the positive space is referred to as figure and the area around it is the ground. Shapes can be geometric or organic. When drawing representational geometric forms it is best to apply the laws of perspective if accuracy is desired. Organic forms are often easier to draw or paint since the exacting laws of perspective are not in play. Shapes can be simple or complex and often are associated with weight again based on their placement in the visual field as well as their size. When placing shapes within the visual field, visual harmony is achieved by balancing the work. Placement in relation to the edges of the visual field as well as to other objects can determine the harmony. Is the shape unnecessarily too close to the edge, or to another shape? If so, visual tension may be the result.
Groupings
of objects help to create a sense of unity within the artwork. When creating a simple grouping of objects, such as a still-life, odd numbers of three, five, and seven can be aesthetically arranged in an asymmetrical balanced composition that may be more visually appealing than a symmetrically balance grouping of an even number. When grouping objects, overlapping the objects will also create more of a sense of unity. Grouping a variety of objects of varying height, width, texture, surfaces, and values can also add interest to the artwork. This applies to both representational and abstract work. Moving object away from one another can create a sense of isolation, abandonment, disjointed, or, in another more positive way, a feeling of openness, or freedom.
Unity
within a two-dimensional work can be achieved in many ways. Repetition of certain shapes, colors, textures, and patterns can create a sense of unity.
Repetition
of designs, forms, shapes, textures, and color, can create a rhythm within the visual field. A successful design using repetition can move the viewer’s eyes along a predetermined path within the visual field. Repeating forms may create a pattern that can be decorative or leading to a more sophisticated two-dimensional design. Music and visual art share similarities when it comes to repeated forms, patterns, and contrast. In music the term color is often used to describe both voice and instrumental music. Certainly, the connections between math, music, and rhythm can also be considered when looking at two-dimensional design and visual art. Interesting that several artists considered math and art to be synonymous with perfection, harmony, and tranquility. They sought an art without the ambiguity of emotion; an art that was clear, focused, and rational. These artists followed the artistic philosophy of Suprematism. Although their philosophy was not inclusive, much of their pure two-dimensional abstract designs provide excellent examples of analytical design and are worthy of study.
Texture
is an art element and can play a role in creating contrast or visual interest in two-dimensional design. The contrast of shiny man-made metallic forms against a backdrop of natural fibers is a good example and use of contrasting textures. Texture can also be achieved using the mark-making drawing, painting, and printmaking tools of the artist.
Proportional Systems
Discussion:
The Golden Section
Two-dimensional design systems have existed for some time. Looking back to the ancient work, we see the Greeks interested in linking proportional systems to nature and more specifically to the human body. The ancient Greeks, in particularly the Athenians, achieved greatness as a people through a combination of factors foremost being freedom. Athens created the first true democratic society in human history and with it came the freedom to explore new ideas. Combine this freedom with a prosperity they had never before experienced and you have fertile ground for innovation and discovery. The prosperity was from the sale and export of olives, olive oil, and the products derived from olives. Their olive industry developed in part through loans allowing the Athenians to purchase and cultivate the surrounding lands planting olive trees as the main cash crop. During this time, the Athenians developed new ideas in writing, theater, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, art, and philosophy. With art and architecture, they developed aesthetics based on close observations of nature and math. Some of these concepts in aesthetics were formally developed into reproducible design systems. Foremost among these systems is the Golden Section, also know as the Golden Ratio (approximately 3:5 ratio), Golden Spiral, and Golden Mean. This system can be applied to two-dimensional art and was also likely adopted by Leonardo Da Vinci for his paintings created during the Italian Renaissance.
Golden Spiral
The Golden Ratio is also called the Golden Mean or Golden Section.
Mathematicians since Euclid have studied the properties of the Golden Ratio, including its appearance in the dimensions of a regular pentagon and in a Golden Rectangle, which may be cut into a square and a smaller rectangle with the same aspect ratio.
The Golden Ratio has also been used to analyze the proportions of natural objects. The Golden Ratio appears in some patterns in nature, including the spiral arrangement of leaves and other plant parts. The Golden Spiral appears in seashells!
Rule of Thirds
An easier design system to apply is the Rule of Thirds popularly used by photographers for generations. The Visual Field is divided into either vertical thirds or horizontal thirds (or both!) for aesthetic reasons. This creates a pleasing design that works well in many applications, but is most often found in photos and paintings of landscapes and seascapes.
• Rule of Thirds is dividing the visual field into thirds
• Divisions into thirds can be horizontal, vertical, or both
• It does not have to be exact, since it is an aesthetic design principle
• Rule of Thirds applies nicely to landscape photography, painting, and drawing
• The concept of the Rule of Thirds is a Principle of Design
The Japanese Design System
• Japanese design is based on two squares side by side.
• This is represented in the Japanese tatami mat seen here:
Assignment #1:
Create simple abstract two-dimensional visual design using the Golden Section/Golden Spiral or the Japanese (rectangle with two squares) proportional systems.
Assignment #2:
Create an aesthetically pleasing design using Rule of Thirds. This may be a collage, drawing, or painting in any hands-on art media you feel comfortable using.
Student Example by Karen Su


6.9: Assessing Reflexes
Assessment of reflexes is not typically performed by registered nurses as part of a routine nursing neurological assessment of adult patients, but it is used in nursing specialty units and in advanced practice. Spinal cord injuries, neuromuscular diseases, or diseases of the lower motor neuron tract can cause weak or absent reflexes. To perform deep reflex tendon testing, place the patient in a seated position. Use a reflex hammer in a quick striking motion by the wrist on various tendons to produce an involuntary response. Before classifying a reflex as absent or weak, the test should be repeated after the patient is encouraged to relax because voluntary tensing of the muscles can prevent an involuntary reflexive action.
Reflexes are graded from 0 to 4+, with “2+” considered normal:
- 0: Absent
- 1+: Hypoactive
- 2+: Normal
- 3+: Hyperactive without clonus
- 4+: Hyperactive with clonus (involuntary muscle contraction)
To observe assessment of deep tendon reflexes, view the following video.
Brachioradialis Reflex
The brachioradialis reflex is used to assess the cervical spine nerves C5 and C6. Ask the patient to support their arm on their thigh or on your hand. Identify the insertion of the brachioradialis tendon on the radius and briskly tap it with the reflex hammer. The reflex consists of flexion and supination of the forearm. See Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) [2] for an image of obtaining the brachioradialis reflex.
Triceps Reflex
The triceps reflex assesses cervical spine nerves C6 and C7. Support the patient’s arm underneath their bicep to maintain a position midway between flexion and extension. Ask the patient to relax their arm and allow it to fully be supported by your hand. Identify the triceps tendon posteriorly just above its insertion on the olecranon. Tap briskly on the tendon with the reflex hammer. Note extension of the forearm. See Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) [3] for an image of the triceps reflex exam.
 Ask the patient to relax the leg and allow it to swing freely at the knee. Tap the patella tendon briskly, looking for extension of the lower leg. See Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) [4] for an image of assessing a patellar reflex.
Plantar Reflex
The plantar reflex assesses lumbar spine L5 and sacral spine S1. Ask the patient to extend their lower leg, and then stabilize their foot in the air with your hand. Stroke the lateral surface of the sole of the foot toward the toes. Many patients are ticklish and withdraw their foot, so it is sufficient to elicit the reflex by using your thumb to stroke lightly from the sole of the foot toward the toes. If there is no response, use a blunt object such as a key or pen. The expected reflex is flexion (i.e., bending) of the great toe. An abnormal response is toe extension (i.e., straightening), also known as the Babinski reflex, which is considered abnormal after 2 years of age. See Figures \(\PageIndex{4}\) – \(\PageIndex{7}\) [5] , [6] , [7] , [8] for images of assessing the plantar reflex.
Video Reviews for Assessment of Deep Tendon Reflexes [9]
Babinski-Plantar Reflex [10]
Newborn Reflexes
Newborn reflexes originate in the central nervous system and are exhibited by infants at birth but disappear as part of child development. Neurological disease or delayed development is indicated if these reflexes are not present at birth, do not spontaneously resolve, or reappear in adulthood. Common newborn reflexes include sucking, rooting, palmar grasp, plantar grasp, Babinski , Moro, and tonic neck reflexes.
Sucking Reflex
The sucking reflex is common to all mammals and is present at birth. It is linked with the rooting reflex and breastfeeding.  See Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\) [11] for an image of the newborn sucking reflex.
Rooting Reflex
The rooting reflex assists in the act of breastfeeding. A newborn infant will turn its head toward anything that strokes its cheek or mouth, searching for the object by moving its head in steadily decreasing arcs until the object is found. See Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\) [12] for an image of a newborn exhibiting the rooting reflex.
Palmar and Plantar Grasps
When an object is placed in an infant’s hand and the palm of the child is stroked, the fingers will close reflexively, referred to as the palmar grasp reflex. A similar reflexive action occurs if an object is placed on the plantar surface of an infant’s foot, referred to as the plantar grasp reflex. See Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\) [13] for an image of the palmar grasp reflex.
Moro Reflex
The Moro reflex is present at birth and is often stimulated by a loud noise.  See Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\) [14] for an image of an infant exhibiting the Moro reflex.
Tonic Neck Reflex
The asymmetrical tonic neck reflex, also known as the “fencing posture,” occurs when the child’s head is turned to the side. The arm on the same side as the head is turned will straighten and the opposite arm will bend. See Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\) [15] for an image of the tonic neck reflex.
Walking-Stepping Reflex
Although infants cannot support their own weight, when the soles of their feet touch a surface, it appears as if they are attempting to walk by placing one foot in front of the other foot.
- Stanford Medicine 25. (2014, March 16). Deep tendon reflexes (Stanford medicine 25). [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://youtu.be/0sqCIzuotWo ↵
- "Deep Reflex Exam Image 4.png" by Meredith Pomietlo for Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- "Deep Reflex Exam Image 2.png" by Meredith Pomietlo for Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- "Deep Reflex Exam Image 3.jpg" by Meredith Pomietlo for Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- "Neuro Exam Image 23.png" and "Neuro Exam Image 21.png" by Meredith Pomietlo for Chippewa Valley Technical College are licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- “ Lawrence 1960 20.4.png ” by Earl Lawrence House & Ben Pansky is in the Public Domain ↵
- “ BabinskiSign.jpg ” by Medicus of Borg is in the Public Domain ↵
- “ Babinski-newborn.jpg ” by Medicus of Borg is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↵
- RegisteredNurseRN (2016, April 1). Deep tendon reflex examination for nursing head to toe assessment of neuro system . [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. Video used with permission. https://youtu.be/eqOpNQH09pA ↵
- RegisteredNurseRN (2016, March 29). Babinski reflex | Plantar reflex test | Nursing head to toe assessment. [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. Video used with permission. https://youtu.be/dcJgxuLtHdg ↵
- “ BabySuckingFingers.jpg ” by Florence Devouard (anthere) is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↵
- “ Rooting Reflex ” by Ashley Arbuckle is licensed under CC BY 2.0 ↵
- “baby-428395_960_720.jpg” by jarmoluk is licensed under CC0 ↵
- “ Moro reflex.jpg ” by tawamie is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↵
- “ Asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR) in a two-week-old female.jpg ” by Samuel Finlayson is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵


24.6: Review Questions
A client is asking what medication would be best for relief of their allergies. Upon further assessment, the nurse learns that the client is a construction worker. What should the nurse recommend?
- Answer
-
Cetirizine
A client taking guaifenesin informs the nurse that the medication is not helping with their cough. What further information should the nurse obtain from the client?
- Answer
-
“Is your cough productive or nonproductive?”
Acetylcysteine is a mucolytic used to help clear respiratory secretions from the airways. For what other purpose can it be used?
- Answer
-
Acetaminophen toxicity
What statement by the client indicates an understanding of the education provided for oxymetazoline?
- Answer
-
“I should not use the drug for more than 3 days.”
Clients taking opioid antitussives should be monitored closely for what adverse effect?
- Answer
-
Respiratory depression
The nurse should educate clients taking dextromethorphan to avoid what?
- Answer
-
Grapefruit juice
Which statement best describes the action of nasal decongestants?
- Answer
-
Nasal decongestants exert their effect by constricting blood vessels in the nasal mucosa, relieving congestion.
Which of the following statements correctly describes the mechanism of action of loratadine?
- Answer
-
Loratadine is an H1 receptor antagonist.
The health care provider orders diphenhydramine 50 mg intramuscularly (IM) for a client with an allergic reaction. The vial contains 25 mg/mL. How many milliliters (mL) should the nurse administer?
- Answer
-
2 mL
A client is prescribed loratadine 10 mg orally once daily for seasonal allergies. The available tablets are 5 mg each. How many tablets should the client take per dose?
- Answer
-
2 tablets


4.3: Departmental rates to estimate factory overhead
A different predetermined rate may be used to estimate factory overhead in each department. Within a department, the rate is the same for all products. The following amounts are given.
|
Total budgeted factory overhead costs for the Cutting Department for the year |
$310,000 |
|
Total budgeted direct labor hours for the Cutting Department |
2,000 |
|
Total budgeted factory overhead costs for the Assembly Department for the year |
$236,000 |
|
Total budgeted direct labor hours for the Assembly Department |
1,000 |
The department factory overhead rate is $155 per direct labor hour in the Cutting Department and $236 per direct labor hour in the Assembly Department, determined as follows.
|
Cutting |
Assembly |
|
|
Budgeted departmental factory overhead |
$310,000 |
$236,000 |
|
Departmental budgeted activity base |
2,000 = $155 |
1,000 = $236 |
Direct labor hours used and factory overhead estimated for this job are as follows:
|
Job 1: |
Cutting Department |
135 direct labor hours x $155 = |
$20,925 |
|
Job 1: |
Assembly Department |
75 direct labor hours x $236 = |
17,700 |
|
Job 1: |
Total |
\(\ \overline{$38,625}\) |
|
|
Job 2: |
Cutting Department |
65 direct labor hours x $155 = |
$10,075 |
|
Job 2: |
Assembly Department |
25 direct labor hours x $236 = |
5,900 |
|
Job 2: |
Total |
\(\ \overline{$15,975}\) |
|
|
Total |
$54,600 |
The journal entry to apply factory overhead of $54,600 to this job is as follows:
|
Account |
Debit |
Credit |
|
|
Work in Process |
54,600 |
▲ Work in Process is an asset (inventory) |
|
|
Factory Overhead |
54,600 |
▼ Factory Overhead is an expense account that is decreasing |
|
In the example so far, the use of departmental rates vs. a single factory rate yields different results in terms of how much factory overhead is applied to each of the two jobs. Although the total factory overhead applied, $54,600, is the same under both methods, the amount allocated to each job differs, as follows:
|
Single Factory |
Departmental |
|
|
Job 1: |
$38,220 |
$38,625 |
|
Job 2: |
16,380 |
15,975 |
Using departmental rates is more job-specific and therefore results in a more precise allocation of factory overhead to the jobs than the single rate. However, it takes a bit more effort to calculate vs. using the single factory rate that is applied to all jobs uniformly.