6.4: The GLOBE Framework
- How are regions of the world categorized using the GLOBE framework, and how does this categorization enhance understanding of cross-cultural leadership?
A second important cultural framework, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project provides managers with an additional lens through which they can better understand how to perform well in an international environment. While the Hofstede framework was developed in the 1960s, the GLOBE project developed in the 1990s is a more recent attempt to understand cultural dimensions. 8 The GLOBE project involves 170 researchers from over 60 countries who collected data on 17,000 managers from 62 countries around the world.
Similar to Hofstede, the GLOBE researchers uncovered nine cultural dimensions. However, basing their work on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, it is not surprising to note that five of these dimensions are similar to those uncovered by Hofstede, namely 1) uncertainty avoidance, 2) power distance, 3) future orientation (degree to which society values the long term) 4) assertiveness orientation (masculinity), 5) gender egalitarianism (femininity), 6) institutional, and 7) societal collectivism (similar to individualism/collectivism). The only two cultural dimensions unique to the GLOBE project are performance orientation (degree to which societies emphasize performance and achievement) and humane orientation (extent to which societies places importance on fairness, altruism, and caring).
Similar to Hofstede, the GLOBE researchers categorized countries into clusters of countries with similar cultural characteristics. This categorization provides a convenient way to summarize cultural information for a larger number of countries and simplifies the task of the international manager attempting to manage effectively in countries within clusters. Because the clusters include societies with similar cultural profiles, similar cultural adaptations can be made. Although the GLOBE study identified ten clusters, we will discuss only the seven clusters most relevant for international managers: the Anglo cluster, the Confucian Asia cluster, the Germanic Europe cluster, the Nordic Europe cluster, the Latin America cluster, the Middle East cluster, and the sub-Saharan cluster. Table 6.6 shows these various clusters and the countries in each cluster.
| Country Clusters |
| Anglo | Confucian Asia | Germanic Europe | Latin America | Nordic Europe | Middle East | Sub-Saharan Africa |
|
Australia Canada Ireland New Zealand South Africa (White) United Kingdom United States |
China Hong Kong Japan Singapore South Korea Taiwan |
Austria Switzerland Netherlands Germany (former East) Germany (former West) |
Argentina Bolivia Brazil Colombia Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Mexico Venezuela |
Denmark Finland Sweden |
Qatar Morocco Turkey Egypt Kuwait |
Namibia Nigeria South Africa (Black) Zambia Zimbabwe |
| Based on Dorfman, P., Paul J. Hanges, and F. C. Brodbeck. 2004. “Leadership and cultural variation: The identification of culturally endorsed leadership profiles.” In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, and V. Gupta, eds. Culture, Leadership, and Organizations .Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 669–720. |
To compare how the different clusters rate different forms of leadership, the GLOBE researchers considered six leadership profiles:
- charismatic type (degree to which the leader can inspire and motivate others)
- team oriented (degree to which the leader can foster a high functioning team),
- participative type (degree to which leaders involve others in decision-making)
- humane-oriented type (degree to which the leader shows compassion and generosity)
- autonomous (degree to which the leader reflects independent and individualistic leadership)
- self-protective (degree to which the leader is self-centered and uses a face-saving approach)
Table 6.7 shows how the various clusters rank these leadership types.
| Country Clusters and Preferred Leadership Styles |
| Leadership Style | Anglo | Confucian Asia | Germanic Europe | Latin America | Middle East | Nordic Europe | Sub-Saharan Africa |
| Charismatic | High | Medium | High | High | Low | High | Medium |
| Team-oriented | Medium | Medium/ High | Medium/ Low | High | Low | Medium | Medium |
| Participative | High | Low | High | Medium | Low | High | High |
| Humane-oriented | High | Medium/ High | Medium | Medium | Medium | Low | Medium |
| Autonomous | Medium | Medium | High | Low | Medium | Medium | Low |
| Self-protective | Low | High | Low | Medium/ High | High | Low | Medium |
| Based on Dorfman, P., Paul J. Hanges, and F. C. Brodbeck. 2004. “Leadership and cultural variation: The identification of culturally endorsed leadership profiles.” In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, and V. Gupta, eds. Culture, Leadership, and Organizations .Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 669–720. |
Table 6.7
Table 6.7 provides further insights to understand how cultural differences affect preferences for leadership styles. 9 Consider, for example, the Nordic Europe cluster, including Scandinavian countries such as Denmark, Finland, and Sweden. These countries have low levels of masculinity, low levels of power, and high individualism. It is therefore not surprising to see that individuals in such societies prefer leaders who are more charismatic and who demonstrate participative leadership tendencies. The least preferred style for this cluster is the self-protective leader, which is more representative of individualist cultures.
Countries in the Latin American cluster (which includes some of the emerging markets of Argentina, Mexico, and Brazil) tend to be more collective, have high power distance, and have high uncertainty avoidance. It is therefore not surprising that leaders who are successful in this cluster are those who make decisions collectively, who treat their subordinates with formality, and who display charisma.
The countries in the Middle East cluster (which includes countries such as Egypt, Morocco, and Turkey) tend to score high on uncertainty avoidance, high on collectivism, and medium on power distance. As a result, because of the high levels of uncertainty avoidance, subordinates are often reluctant to make decisions that involve risk, thereby explaining the high ranking for autonomous leadership style. Thus, it is not surprising that the Middle East cluster prefers leaders who are less participative. Furthermore, the preferred leadership style in this cluster behaves in a collective manner and tries to maintain harmony because of the high level of collectivism.
Although there are cultural differences between clusters, it is important to see that the clusters do share some similarities. For example, the charismatic leadership style is preferred in all clusters except the Middle East cluster. In addition, Table 6.8 shows that the humane-oriented leadership style is preferred in all but the Nordic Europe cluster.
In contrast, leadership styles based on individualist tendencies, such as the autonomous and the selfprotective types, tend to be least preferred.
| Traits and Behaviors That Are Universally Admired and Disliked |
| Positively-Regarded Traits and Behaviors across the World |
| Trustworthy | Dependable |
| Intelligent | Just |
| Honest | Decisive |
| Plans ahead | Effective bargainer |
| Encouraging | Win-win problem solver |
| Positive | Skilled administrator |
| Dynamic | Communicator |
| Motivator | Informed |
| Confidence builder | Team builder |
| Negatively-Regarded Traits and Behaviors across the World |
| Loner | Egocentric |
| Antisocial | Ruthless |
| Not cooperative | Dictatorial |
| Nonexplicit |
| Based on Den Hartog, Deanne N., Robert J. House, Paul J. Hanges, Peter W. Dorfman, S. Antonio RuizQuintanna, and 170 associates. 1999. “Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable implicit leadership theories: Are attributes of charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed?” Leadership Quarterly ,10, 219–256. |
Table 6.8
The GLOBE team also found that a number of traits, such as being honest, trustworthy, positive, and dynamic, were viewed positively worldwide and were endorsed irrespective of national culture. Similarly, leadership behaviors such as being a loner, egocentric, and dictatorial were viewed in a negative light by all clusters. Table 6.8 shows which traits are viewed as positive and which are viewed as negative by the various clusters.
Summary
In this section, we have learned about the various tools that managers can use to understand and prepare for cross-national differences and how they impact behaviors of employees across multinational corporations. We’ve also seen that there are many similarities among cultures. Relying solely on such frameworks to understand a culture can be misleading, however. In the next section, we discuss some of the dangers of cultural stereotyping and examine the need to be cautious and to take into account the interaction between a nation’s culture and its social institutions.
- Describe how the GLOBE tools can be used by managers to prepare for cross-national situations.
- What are the similarities and differences among clusters?
 In Malaysia, you are introduced to the company executives in a flashy ceremony. You understand that the affiliate’s CEO is named Roger, and you have a great time socializing with him.  However, later you find that your host’s name is actually Rajah.
After your trip to Malaysia, you go to China. You are welcomed lavishly by the local affiliate’s executives and are invited to several important meals. Over the next few days, you seem to be spending time mostly at lunches or dinners. Whenever you try to discuss specifics of your products, you find that your hosts are more interested in eating and drinking. You attempt to provide your hosts with contracts that your company has drafted, but you are not successful.
Despite your reservations, you return home feeling strongly about your efforts. However, your CEO soon asks to meet with you. During the meeting, she mentions that neither the Malaysian company nor the Chinese company is interested in doing further business with your company. In fact, both companies decide to go with competitors. The CEO wants to know what happened, and you need to figure out what went wrong.
Discussion Questions
- Discuss where the United States, Malaysia, and China stand on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.
- What are the implications of the above differences for how business is conducted in Malaysia and China?
- How can these cultural differences explain why you were not successful? What should you have done differently?
References
8. R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman and V. Gupta (eds), 2004, Culture, Leadership and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies , Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
9. Mansour Javidan, Peter W. Dorfman, Mary Sully de Luque, and Robert J. House, 2006, “In the eye of the beholder: Cross-cultural lessons in leadership for project GLOBE,” The Academy of Management Perspectives , February,20(1), pp. 67–90


8.13: The Mamluk Sultanate
The year was 1249, and Louis IX’s seventh crusade had just gotten underway when as-Salih, the last Ayyubid ruler, took to his deathbed. Under the eminent threat of a Crusader invasion, as-Salih’s wife, Shajar al-Durr , a Turkish concubine, agreed to take over the reins of government until her son, Turanshah, could assert himself. But he had never truly gained the trust of his father, and a cabal of mamluks loyal to as-Salih murdered Turanshah. They then raised Shajar al-Durr to the throne. Her rule resulted in much controversy and suffered from many internal problems. According to tradition, she sought recognition as sultana from the figurehead ‘Abbasid Caliph, but he refused to pay homage to her. The mamluks responded by installing into power one of their own, a certain Aybak . He married Shajar al-Durr, and she abdicated the throne. The most powerful mamluk in Egypt, Aybak placated some of the opposition to Shajar al-Durr’s rule and also dealt with Louis IX’s crusade to Egypt. While mamluks did not possess a tribal ‘asabiyah in the traditional sense, they did constitute a proud caste of elite warriors who had an exaggerated sense of group solidarity. As a social group, their former status as slaves provided them with enough group cohesion to overthrow the Ayyubids.
Shajar al-Durr remained unsatisfied in her new role, however. In fact, she saw herself as another Cleopatra and wanted to rule in her own right. She also feared the consequences of Aybak’s potential marriage alliance with the daughter of the Ayyubid Emir of Mosul. In 1257, Shajar al-Durr had Aybak strangled and claimed that he had died a natural death. However, Qutuz , a leading mamluk , did not believe her story. Under duress, her servants confessed to the murder. Qutuz arrested Shajar al-Durr and imprisoned her in the Red Tower. Not long thereafter, Aybak’s fifteen year old son, al-Mansur ‘Ali, had Shajar al-Durr stripped and beaten to death. He reigned as sultan for two years until Qutuz deposed him, as he thought the sultanate needed a strong and capable ruler to deal with the looming Mongol threat.
The Mamluk Sultanate appeared to be on a collision course with Hulagu’s Ilkhanate, one of Mongol Empire’s four khanates, whose forces were advancing through the Mamluk-held Levant. Then in the summer of 1260, the Great Khan Möngke died and Hulagu returned home with the bulk of his forces to participate in the required khuriltai, or Mongol assembly, perhaps expecting to be elected the next Great Khan. Hulagu left his general Kitbuqa behind with a smaller army to fight the Mamluks. In July of that year, a confrontation took place at Ayn Jalut , near Lake Tiberias. During the ensuing battle, the Mamluk General Baybars drew out the Mongols with a feigned retreat. Hiding behind a hill, Aybak’s mamluk heavy cavalrymen ambushed the unsuspecting Mongols and defeated them in close combat, securing a rare victory over the Mongols. The Mamluks captured and executed Kitbuqa, and forced the remnants of the Mongol forces to retreat.
Just days after their signal victory over the Mongols, Baybars (1260 – 1277) murdered Qutuz, continuing a pattern of rule in which only the strongest Mamluk rulers could survive. Too clever to be deposed, Baybars developed a strong military oligarchy that rested on the iqta‘ system, a centralized system of land tenure based on money that, by the thirteenth century, had been perfected in Egypt. Under the iqta‘ system, individual mamluks received a percentage of profit from the sale of crops for their upkeep. Baybars owned all of the land, so mamluks only received the right to collect taxes from the land, a right akin to usufruct in feudal Europe.
Baybars relocated the ‘Abbasid Caliph from Baghdad to Cairo in order to present a veneer of legitimacy to mamluk rule. Since the Ptolemys, Egypt had been ruled by foreigners. In fact, the only impact native-born Egyptians had was in religion. The Mamluk Sultanate practiced Sunni Islam and emphasized Sufism. Sufis believed that traditional, orthodox Islam lacked compassion, and their Sufism helped conversion efforts because of its emphasis on love and making a closer connection to God, as opposed to a strict adherence to the dictates of the Quran. Sufis desired something more from religion and emphasized integrating the reality of God into man. Sufis thought that they could achieve a union with God based on love, a notion that contrasted sharply with the general perception of orthodox Islam which denied believers a direct experience to God because Muhammad represented the Seal of the Prophets and all understanding of God came through the prophet. They set up new religious schools to pass on this Sufism. These madrasa consisted of a complex, with a mosque, school, hospital, and water supply for each community.
The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries witnessed the decline of the Mamluk Empire. Several internal and external factors help explain their decline. Domestically, the Black Death ravaged Egypt for years. In fact, it continued in North Africa longer than it did in Europe. This plague caused economic disruption in the sultanate. With fewer people available, labor, or human capital, became much more expensive. Further, plague-related inflation destabilized the economy, as the value of goods and services also rose. The mamluks responded to inflationary pressures by increasing taxes, but their revenue from those taxes actually decreased. This decrease made it difficult for the mamluks to maintain their irrigation networks and, without irrigation, agricultural productivity decreased.
Externally, plague was not the only cause of inflation. Columbus’s discovery of the New World began a process in which gold began filtering through Europe and into North Africa. Egypt’s weak economy could not absorb this massive influx of money, thus causing more inflation. New trade routes, like the one pioneered by Vasco de Gama, offered Europeans direct sea routes to Asia. No longer was Egypt the middleman for long-distance trade between Europe and Asia, thereby losing out on valuable revenue from tariffs. The profits from commerce transferred to the ascending states of Portugal and Spain. The decline of the Mamluks set the stage for the rise of the Ottomans.


7.5: Team Remixing
Team Sandboxes
The facilitate team collaborative efforts within the remixer was expanded to include Team Sandboxes. When set up by the LibreTexts administrators, team members, the sandbox area for individual users will be expanded with a shared Team Sandbox and look like this (with your username in the middle, not the "DelmarTestBasic" account):
Team members can collaboratively edit content in th Team Sandbox, including using collaborative remixer.
Refresh Remixer may be Needed
To clear the cache and update the remixer on your computer, you will have to do a Control-F5 - for PCs and Ctrl and ⇧ Shift and then press R for macs.
Collaborative Remixing
The remixer (in edit remix mode) can access to the entire library in the "Library Panel" including texts in the Courses, Bookshelves and Sandboxes (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). A new feature that is the text that was open when the remixer was launched is indicated in italics; the remixer in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) was loaded from the Sandbox area.
When the hierarchy in the the Library Panel is expanded, only sections that are in blue text can be loaded with your permissions.
There are no texts/courses to remixer in either Sandbox, so nothing can be loaded up. That requires creating a new remix, or manually adding an empty page in the sandboxes for expanding. The remixer (new mode) will be updated promptly for doing this.


7: Basis of Wind-Driven Circulation - Ekman spiral and transports
In Section 6 , it was mentioned that the large-scale currents at the ocean surface are all driven by the wind. This seems logical enough at first sight, but the Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen noticed something strange: icebergs tend to drift at an angle to the right of the prevailing wind direction. To explain this remarkable observation, Ekman (1905) formulated a theory that is still a cornerstone of physical oceanography. The central assumption is that near the ocean surface, the largest deviations from geostrophic balance occur as a result of the wind stress which leads to momentum diffusion in the vertical direction. This means that to a good approximation, the horizontal momentum balance equations \((1.2a)\) and \((1.2b)\) in Section 1 become:
\[\dfrac{\left(\dfrac{dp}{dx}\right)}{\rho}=f * v +K_v\dfrac{d^2u}{dz^2} \label{7.1a}\]
\[\dfrac{\left(\dfrac{dp}{dy}\right)}{\rho}=-f * u +K_v\dfrac{d^2v}{dz^2} \label{7.1b}\]
We now split the velocity up in a geostrophic part (\(u_g,v_g\)) and an ageostrophic Ekman velocity (\(u_E,v_E\)):
\[\dfrac{\left(\dfrac{dp}{dx}\right)}{\rho}=f * (v_g+v_E) +K_v\dfrac{d^2(u_g+u_E)}{dz^2} \label{7.2a}\]
\[\dfrac{\left(\dfrac{dp}{dy}\right)}{\rho}=-f * (u_g+u_E) +K_v\dfrac{d^2(v_g+v_E)}{dz^2} \label{7.2b}\]
From equations \((5.1a)\) and \((5.1b)\) in Section 5, we can see that the geostrophic velocities cancel against the pressure gradient terms on the lefthand side; the terms \(K_v\dfrac{d^2u_g}{dz^2}\) and \(K_v\dfrac{d^2v_g}{dz^2}\) can be neglected. Therefore, the equations simplify to:
\[f * v_E =-K_v\dfrac{d^2 u_E}{dz^2} \label{7.3a}\]
\[f * u_E =K_v\dfrac{d^2 v_E}{dz^2} \label{7.3b}\]
which can be reformulated through substitution into one fourth-order ordinary differential equation:
\[u_E =-\left(\dfrac{K_v}{f}\right)^2 \dfrac{d^4 u_E}{dz^4} \label{7.4}\]
with the (real) solution:
\[u_E = A_1 \cos\left(\sqrt{\dfrac{f}{2K_v}}z+\phi_1\right)e^{\sqrt{\dfrac{f}{2K_v}}z}+A_2 \cos\left(\sqrt{\dfrac{f}{2K_v}}z+\phi_2\right)e^{-\sqrt{\dfrac{f}{2K_v}}z} \label{7.5}\]
To determine the different coefficients, we use two boundary conditions:
- The direct impact of the wind stress disappears in the deep ocean: \(u_E \rightarrow 0\) for \(z \rightarrow -\infty\). Therefore, \(A_2\) must be equal to \(0\).
- In Section 6 , we argued that close to the ocean-atmosphere interface, the wind stress is linearly proportional to the vertical velocity gradient; this means that if the wind is blowing in the zonal (West-East) direction, \(\dfrac{du_E}{dz}=\dfrac{\tau_w}{\rho K_v}\) (equation \(6.1\)), \(\dfrac{dv_E}{dz}=0\) for \(z=0\). This leads to \(\phi_1=-\dfrac{\pi}{4}\), \(A_1=\dfrac{\tau_w}{\rho \sqrt{f K_v}}\).
Overall, we have:
\[u_E = \dfrac{\tau_w}{\rho \sqrt{f K_v}} \cos\left(\sqrt{\dfrac{f}{2K_v}}z-\dfrac{\pi}{4}\right)e^{\sqrt{\dfrac{f}{2K_v}}z} \label{7.6a}\]
\[v_E = -\dfrac{K_v}{f}\dfrac{d^2 u_E}{dz^2}=\dfrac{\tau_w}{\rho \sqrt{f K_v}} \sin\left(\sqrt{\dfrac{f}{2K_v}}z-\dfrac{\pi}{4}\right)e^{\sqrt{\dfrac{f}{2K_v}}z} \label{7.6b}\]
The Ekman transports per unit area in the zonal and meridional directions are respectively:
\[M_{E,x}=\rho\int_{-\infty}^0 u_E\, dz\]
\[M_{E,y}=\rho\int_{-\infty}^0 v_E\, dz\]
These could be calculated by integrating Equations \(\ref{7.6a}\) and \(\ref{7.6b}\), but it is much easier to use Equations \(\ref{7.3a}\) and \(\ref{7.3b}\):
\[\begin{align} M_{E,x} &=\dfrac{K_v \rho}{f}\int_{-\infty}^0 \dfrac{d^2 v_E}{dz^2}\, dz \\[4pt] &=\dfrac{K_v \rho}{f}\left(\dfrac{dv_E}{dz}(z=0)-\dfrac{dv_E}{dz}(z\rightarrow-\infty)\right) \\[4pt] &=0 \label{7.7a} \end{align}\]
and
\[\begin{align} M_{E,y} &=-\dfrac{K_v \rho}{f}\int_{-\infty}^0 \dfrac{d^2 u_E}{dz^2}\, dz \\[4pt] &=-\dfrac{K_v \rho}{f}\left(\dfrac{du_E}{dz}(z=0)-\dfrac{du_E}{dz}(z\rightarrow-\infty)\right) \\[4pt] &=-\dfrac{\tau_w}{f} \label{7.7b} \end{align}\]
What does all this mean? At the ocean surface,
\[u_E=\dfrac{\tau_w}{\rho \sqrt{2f K_v}} \nonumber\]
and
\[v_E=-\dfrac{\tau_w}{\rho \sqrt{2f K_v}} \nonumber\]
via Equations \ref{7.6a} and \ref{7.6b}, that is, the Ekman velocity is at an angle of \(45^{\circ}\) to the right of the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere (and to the left of the wind in the Southern Hemisphere) due to the Coriolis force. Going deeper, the Coriolis force keeps turning the direction of the flow further to the right, while the water speed decreases exponentially with depth. As illustrated in the Figure below (courtesy of NOAA), the overall flow pattern forms a so-called Ekman spiral. Furthermore, Equation \(\ref{7.7a}\) and \(\ref{7.7b}\) imply that the net Ekman transport is at \(90^{\circ}\) to the right of the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere.


1.2: Exercise
Exercise 1: Identifying the parts of the microscope
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Side and front view of Olympus CX43 microscope, from user manual. Instructions : Identify & label the following parts of your microscope onto the image above, and fill-in-the blanks below. · Binocular head, Oculars: _______x · Arm · Revolving nosepiece · Objective lenses: ______x, _______x, _______x, _______x · Mechanical stage and X/Y knobs · Stage/slide clips · Condenser Turret __________, ___________, __________, ____________ · Iris diaphragm and how to adjust it · Coarse adjustment knob & fine adjustment knob · Light source; illuminator · Base · Dimmer; light intensity · Power switch & power cord · Total magnification calculation = Exercise 2: Using your MicroscopeThe genus Amoeba (sometimes referred to as Amoebozoa ) are a group of eukaryotic single-cell organisms in the kingdom Protista. Some species can cause serious human diseases, such as Entamoeba histolytica which causes amoebic dysentery (bloody diarrhea), and Naegleria fowleri, commonly referred to as the "brain-eating" amoeba. Pseudopodia are foot-like extensions of the cell membrane and cytoplasm via actin microfilaments and are used for motility and ingestion of food (bacteria and other protists) via phagocytosis. Amoeba are fairly large multinucleated cells, meaning they contain more than one nucleus per cell.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Amoeba proteus. Amoebae with tubular and lobe-shaped pseudopodia are seen under a microscope. These isolates would be morphologically classified as amoebozoans. OpenStax Figure 23.13 used under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . The genus Paramecium are a group of eukaryotic single-cell organisms in the kingdom Protista. They are typically found in freshwater or brackish (slightly salty) environments. Paramecium are called ciliates because they have specialized hair-like structures called cilia . Their cilia line the outside of the cell and are used for motility. Cilia also line the oral groove (primitive mouth) and are used to ingest of food such as bacteria. Contractile vacuoles allow the organism to excrete excess water. Paramecium have another distinguishing trait - two nuclei; a macronucleus that is used for transcription of genes, and a micronucleus that is used for sexual reproduction.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Paramecium. (credit “paramecium micrograph”: modification of work by NIH; scale-bar data from Matt Russell) OpenStax Figure 23.24 used under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Instructions : View both Paramecium and Amoeba slides under the 4x, 10x, and 40x objectives, and sketch and label each organism in the space below. Do NOT use the oil immersion lens today.
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|---|


21.9: Sample Documentation
Sample Documentation for Expected Findings
A size 14F Foley catheter inserted per provider prescription. Indication: Prolonged urinary retention. Procedure and purpose of Foley catheter explained to patient. Patient denies allergies to iodine, orthopedic limitations, or previous genitourinary surgeries. Balloon inflated with 10 mL of sterile saline. Patient verbalized no discomfort or pain with balloon inflation or during the procedure. Peri-care provided before and after procedure. Catheter tubing secured to right upper thigh with stat lock. Drainage bag attached, tubing coiled loosely with no kinks, bag is below bladder level on bed frame. Urine drained with procedure 375 mL. Urine is clear, amber in color, no sediment. Patient resting comfortably; instructed the patient to notify the nurse if develops any bladder pain, discomfort, or spasms. Patient verbalized understanding.
Sample Documentation for Unexpected Findings
A size 14F Foley catheter inserted per provider prescription. Indication was for oliguria with accurate output measurements required. Procedure and purpose of Foley catheter explained to patient. Patient denies allergies to iodine, orthopedic limitations, or previous genitourinary surgeries. As the balloon was being inflated with saline, patient began to report discomfort. Saline removed, catheter further advanced one inch and balloon reinflated with 10 mL of normal saline. Patient denied discomfort after the catheter advancement. Catheter tubing secured to right upper thigh with stat lock. Drainage bag attached, tubing coiled loosely with no kinks, bag is below bladder level. Urine drained with procedure 100 mL. Urine drainage is dark amber, noticeable sediment in tubing, with foul odor. Patient resting comfortably, denies any bladder pain or discomfort. Instructed the patient to notify the nurse if develops any bladder pain, discomfort, or urinary spasms. Patient verbalized understanding. Notify the health care provider of urine assessment. Continue monitoring patient for any new or worsening symptoms such as change in mental status, fever, chills, or hematuria.


3.7: Gravity with More Than Two Bodies
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how the gravitational interactions of many bodies can causes perturbations in their motions
- Explain how the planet Neptune was discovered
Until now, we have considered the Sun and a planet (or a planet and one of its moons) as nothing more than a pair of bodies revolving around each other. In fact, all the planets exert gravitational forces upon one another as well. These interplanetary attractions cause slight variations from the orbits than would be expected if the gravitational forces between planets were neglected. The motion of a body that is under the gravitational influence of two or more other bodies is very complicated and can be calculated properly only with large computers. Fortunately, astronomers have such computers at their disposal in universities and government research institutes.
The Interactions of Many Bodies
As an example, suppose you have a cluster of a thousand stars all orbiting a common center (such clusters are quite common, as we shall see in Star Clusters). If we know the exact position of each star at any given instant, we can calculate the combined gravitational force of the entire group on any one member of the cluster. Knowing the force on the star in question, we can therefore find how it will accelerate. If we know how it was moving to begin with, we can then calculate how it will move in the next instant of time, thus tracking its motion.
However, the problem is complicated by the fact that the other stars are also moving and thus changing the effect they will have on our star. Therefore, we must simultaneously calculate the acceleration of each star produced by the combination of the gravitational attractions of all the others in order to track the motions of all of them, and hence of any one. Such complex calculations have been carried out with modern computers to track the evolution of hypothetical clusters of stars with up to a million members (Figure 3.13).
Within the solar system, the problem of computing the orbits of planets and spacecraft is somewhat simpler. We have seen that Kepler’s laws, which do not take into account the gravitational effects of the other planets on an orbit, really work quite well. This is because these additional influences are very small in comparison with the dominant gravitational attraction of the Sun. Under such circumstances, it is possible to treat the effects of other bodies as small perturbations (or disturbances). During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, mathematicians developed many elegant techniques for calculating perturbations, permitting them to predict very precisely the positions of the planets. Such calculations eventually led to the prediction and discovery of a new planet in 1846.
The Discovery of Neptune
The discovery of the eighth planet, Neptune , was one of the high points in the development of gravitational theory. In 1781, William Herschel , a musician and amateur astronomer, accidentally discovered the seventh planet, Uranus . It happens that Uranus had been observed a century before, but in none of those earlier sightings was it recognized as a planet; rather, it was simply recorded as a star. Herschel’s discovery showed that there could be planets in the solar system too dim to be visible to the unaided eye, but ready to be discovered with a telescope if we just knew where to look.
By 1790, an orbit had been calculated for Uranus using observations of its motion in the decade following its discovery. Even after allowance was made for the perturbing effects of Jupiter and Saturn, however, it was found that Uranus did not move on an orbit that exactly fit the earlier observations of it made since 1690. By 1840, the discrepancy between the positions observed for Uranus and those predicted from its computed orbit amounted to about 0.03°—an angle barely discernable to the unaided eye but still larger than the probable errors in the orbital calculations. In other words, Uranus just did not seem to move on the orbit predicted from Newtonian theory.
In 1843, John Couch Adams , a young Englishman who had just completed his studies at Cambridge, began a detailed mathematical analysis of the irregularities in the motion of Uranus to see whether they might be produced by the pull of an unknown planet. He hypothesized a planet more distant from the Sun than Uranus, and then determined the mass and orbit it had to have to account for the departures in Uranus’ orbit. In October 1845, Adams delivered his results to George Airy, the British Astronomer Royal, informing him where in the sky to find the new planet. We now know that Adams’ predicted position for the new body was correct to within 2°, but for a variety of reasons, Airy did not follow up right away.
Meanwhile, French mathematician Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier , unaware of Adams or his work, attacked the same problem and published its solution in June 1846. Airy, noting that Le Verrier’s predicted position for the unknown planet agreed to within 1° with that of Adams, suggested to James Challis, Director of the Cambridge Observatory, that he begin a search for the new object. The Cambridge astronomer, having no up-to-date star charts of the Aquarius region of the sky where the planet was predicted to be, proceeded by recording the positions of all the faint stars he could observe with his telescope in that location. It was Challis’ plan to repeat such plots at intervals of several days, in the hope that the planet would distinguish itself from a star by its motion. Unfortunately, he was negligent in examining his observations; although he had actually seen the planet, he did not recognize it.
About a month later, Le Verrier suggested to Johann Galle , an astronomer at the Berlin Observatory, that he look for the planet. Galle received Le Verrier’s letter on September 23, 1846, and, possessing new charts of the Aquarius region, found and identified the planet that very night. It was less than a degree from the position Le Verrier predicted. The discovery of the eighth planet, now known as Neptune (the Latin name for the god of the sea), was a major triumph for gravitational theory for it dramatically confirmed the generality of Newton’s laws. The honor for the discovery is properly shared by the two mathematicians, Adams and Le Verrier (Figure 3.14).
We should note that the discovery of Neptune was not a complete surprise to astronomers, who had long suspected the existence of the planet based on the “disobedient” motion of Uranus. On September 10, 1846, two weeks before Neptune was actually found, John Herschel, son of the discoverer of Uranus, remarked in a speech before the British Association, “We see [the new planet] as Columbus saw America from the shores of Spain. Its movements have been felt trembling along the far-reaching line of our analysis with a certainty hardly inferior to ocular demonstration.”
This discovery was a major step forward in combining Newtonian theory with painstaking observations. Such work continues in our own times with the discovery of planets around other stars.
For the fuller story of how Neptune was predicted and found (and the effect of the discovery on the search for Pluto), you can read this page on the mathematical discovery of planets.
When Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton formulated the fundamental rules that underlie everything in the physical world, they changed much more than the face of science. For some, they gave humanity the courage to let go of old superstitions and see the world as rational and manageable; for others, they upset comforting, ordered ways that had served humanity for centuries, leaving only a dry, “mechanical clockwork” universe in their wake.
Poets of the time reacted to such changes in their work and debated whether the new world picture was an appealing or frightening one. John Donne (1573–1631), in a poem called “Anatomy of the World,” laments the passing of the old certainties:
The new Philosophy [science] calls all in doubt,
The element of fire is quite put out;
The Sun is lost, and th’ earth, and no man’s wit
Can well direct him where to look for it.
(Here the “element of fire” refers also to the sphere of fire, which medieval thought placed between Earth and the Moon.)
By the next century, however, poets like Alexander Pope were celebrating Newton and the Newtonian world view. Pope’s famous couplet, written upon Newton’s death, goes
Nature, and nature’s laws lay hid in night.
God said, Let Newton be! And all was light.
In his 1733 poem, An Essay on Man , Pope delights in the complexity of the new views of the world, incomplete though they are:
Of man, what see we, but his station here,
From which to reason, to which refer? . . .
He, who thro’ vast immensity can pierce,
See worlds on worlds compose one universe,
Observe how system into system runs,
What other planets circle other suns,
What vary’d being peoples every star,
May tell why Heav’n has made us as we are . . .
All nature is but art, unknown to thee;
All chance, direction, which thou canst not see;
All discord, harmony not understood;
All partial evil, universal good:
And, in spite of pride, in erring reason’s spite,
One truth is clear, whatever is, is right.
Poets and philosophers continued to debate whether humanity was exalted or debased by the new views of science. The nineteenth-century poet Arthur Hugh Clough (1819–1861) cries out in his poem “The New Sinai”:
And as old from Sinai’s top God said that God is one,
By science strict so speaks He now to tell us, there is None!
Earth goes by chemic forces; Heaven’s a Mécanique Celeste!
And heart and mind of humankind a watchwork as the rest!
(A “mécanique celeste” is a clockwork model to demonstrate celestial motions.)
The twentieth-century poet Robinson Jeffers (whose brother was an astronomer) saw it differently in a poem called “Star Swirls”:
There is nothing like astronomy to pull the stuff out of man.


3.4.2: Gram-Negative Wall
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Learning Objectives
- Recognize the characteristics of a gram-negative bacteria
The Gram-negative cell wall is composed of an outer membrane, a peptidoglygan layer, and a periplasm .
In the Gram-negative Bacteria the cell wall is composed of a single layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by a membranous structure called the outer membrane. The gram-negative bacteria do not retain crystal violet but are able to retain a counterstain, commonly safranin, which is added after the crystal violet. The safranin is responsible for the red or pink color seen with a gram-negative bacteria. The Gram-negative’s cell wall is thinner (10 nanometers thick) and less compact than that of Gram-positive bacteria, but remains strong, tough, and elastic to give them shape and protect them against extreme environmental conditions. The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria invariably contains a unique component, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in addition to proteins and phospholipids. The LPS molecule is toxic and is classified as an endotoxin that elicits a strong immune response when the bacteria infect animals.
In Gram-negative bacteria the outer membrane is usually thought of as part of the outer leaflet of the membrane structure and is relatively permeable. It contains structures that help bacteria adhere to animal cells and cause disease. The peptidoglycan layer is non-covalently anchored to lipoprotein molecules called Braun’s lipoproteins through their hydrophobic head. Sandwiched between the outer membrane and the plasma membrane, a concentrated gel-like matrix (the periplasm) is found in the periplasmic space. It is in fact an integral compartment of the gram-negative cell wall and contains binding proteins for amino acids, sugars, vitamins, iron, and enzymes essential for bacterial nutrition. The periplasm space can act as reservoir for virulence factors and a dynamic flux of macromolecules representing the cell’s metabolic status and its response to environmental factors. Together, the plasma membrane and the cell wall (outer membrane, peptidoglycan layer, and periplasm) constitute the gram-negative envelope.
Key Points
- The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria contains lipopolysaccharides, proteins, and phospholipids.
- The lipopolysaccharide component acts as a virulence factor and causes disease in animals.
- More virulence factors are harbored in the periplasmic space between the outer membrane and the plasma membrane.
Key Terms
- lipopolysaccharide : any of a large class of lipids conjugated with polysaccharides
- endotoxin : Any toxin secreted by a microorganism and released into the surrounding environment only when it dies.


11.1: How can we create equity in the classroom?
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by: Anthony D. Richardson
INTRODUCTION
There are many avenues we can take toward equity in the school. We will discuss Culture, School Size, Gender, Learning, and Funding. Five important topics needed for equity in the classroom. Before you can fair assessment of anything a person faces, they must try to understand the what, when, why and how. Equity is what every Teacher, Principal, School Super Attendant, and Parent should strive for.
CULTURE
Year 2024 will represent the 70th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), the Supreme Court decision outlawing racial segregation in schools. Brown v. Board has been called the defining legal decision of the 20th century, framing as it did the United States’ struggle with issues of race and racial equality. In that decision, the justices clearly state that they were striking down segregation in public schools both to increase educational equity and to eliminate the racial stigma associated with segregation.
Despite a wide range of efforts over the past 60 years, issues of racial and ethnic stigma and its relationship to identity and motivation remain central issues for those interested in creating racially equitable educational settings today. I argue that efforts to improve educational equity can only advance when a corresponding effort is made to reduce racial and ethnic stigma.
In the 60 years since the first Brown decision, we have learned a great deal about both the value of diverse learning environments for student development and how to create effective diverse learning environments. Nevertheless, as we come to understand that the racial and ethnic stigma discussed in Brown continues to play a central role in modern educational outcomes and inequities, we can direct our reform efforts in productive ways.
- First, teachers much acknowledge how deficit-based notions of diverse students continue to permeate traditional school thinking, practices, and placement, and critique their own thoughts and practices to ensure they do not reinforce prejudiced behavior.
- Second, culturally relevant pedagogy recognizes the explicit connection between culture and learning, and sees students’ cultural capital as an asset and not a detriment to their school success.
- Third, culturally relevant teaching is mindful of how traditional teaching practices reflect middle-class; European-American cultural values, and thus seeks to incorporate a wider range of dynamic and fluid teaching practices outcomes through the amelioration of stigma
Note
Culture ... impacts our lives by determining what is important and what is not,what makes sense and what does not. The culture then makes these constructions available to the young and to new initiates for appropriation and use in transforming their participation in that culture. Learning, then, becomes a matter of changes in one's relation to the culture(s) to which one is connected.
SCHOOL SIZE
A large-scale quantitative study using nationally representative and longitudinal data attempted to identify the ideal size of a high school, based on student learning. The study explored these issues for about 10,000 students in 800 public and private schools in the United States. Although most research on this topic has been framed within a "bigger versus smaller" mode, the objective here was to estimate an appropriate balance point between student learning and school size. Achievement gains in mathematics and reading over the course of high school were found to be largest in middle-sized high schools (600-900 students). Schools of this size were also favored in terms of social equity, in that they had weaker relationships between student socioeconomic status (SES) and achievement. Lee and Smith also found that even though the same "ideal size" was consistent across schools identified by their average SES and minority concentrations, school size was a more important factor in determining learning in schools enrolling more disadvantaged students.
Investigating the effects of school size in Chicago's (K-8) elementary schools, another study also found favorable effects for smaller schools in terms of student learning and teachers' willingness to take responsibility for their students' learning. Although without exception, teachers and students reported that social relations were more personal in the smaller high schools; this was not always seen as a benefit. A few students in the smaller high schools reported that they were unable to "live down" the negative reputations of their older siblings or even parents. Some teachers in such schools had to work hard to keep a modicum of privacy.
Sociological theory suggests that human interactions and ties become more formal as organizations grow. Organizational growth generates new bureaucratic structures, as connections between individuals become less personal. These structures can inhibit communal organization. This general theory has been confirmed in research identifying the organizational characteristics of effective schools. In school climate studies, for example, size operates as an ecological feature of the social structure, part of the physical environment that influences the nature of social interactions. In general, the sociological evidence about high schools suggests that social relations are generally more positive in smaller schools.
GENDER
As young people move into adolescence, they begin to explore gender roles. Finding their way through this potential minefield is complicated and challenging for middle school students. The process of determining the variations in masculinity and femininity is largely a social function, not a biological one. What it means to be a man, and what it means to be a woman, is communicated to children by all the adults in a child's life, including teachers.
Boys and girls create very distinct cultures; when they are in same-gender groups they act and play very differently. Teachers need to understand these differences and be purposeful in the treatment of each so as to send the healthiest messages to adolescents.
In 1992 the American Association of University Women (AALUW) published a groundbreaking study about how schools were not meeting the needs of young girls. Their schools shortchanged girls in many ways: when questioned in class, girls were less likely to receive a prompt to clarify thinking if they answered incorrectly; boys were more regularly called on, and if not, they were just as likely to shout out an answer, leaving girls to sit quietly; and girls were not encouraged to take advanced math and science classes (AAUW 1992). Perhaps not surprisingly, then, in their middle school years, girls stopped being successful in math and science.
So what do we do? The first thing is to become aware of the differences between genders. Once these differences are explained and accepted, educators must be proactive in the way boys and girls are treated in schools. Indeed, there are distinct advantages to educating boys and girls together appropriately, for in doing so, each gender will begin to see how the other thinks, feels, responds, and reacts. Such understanding is in itself a major goal for gender-friendly classrooms.
We should also consider the nature of the differences between boys and girls. Creating a gender-friendly classroom does not mean that you create gender-specific activities, divide your classroom, or even insist on single-sex classes. Students should at some times have an opportunity to work in a gender-matched activity, while at other times they should learn to function in a more typical gender-mismatched one. This allows students to experience instructional times that are more comfortable for students when the activities are matched to their nature. But they also learn to function outside that comfort area when they are in a mismatched situation, and thus strengthen weaker areas.
For teachers the imperative is to learn about the differences in gender. Teachers need to accept that learning occurs differently for each gender, and to measure out activities and experiences that favor one some of the time, and the other some of the time.   When boys see girls appropriately modeling relationship behaviors, the boys learn how to be more sensitive and open. Likewise, when girls see the appropriate use of assertiveness that boys learn early, the girls see that this can be used to their advantage as well.
LEARNING
Human beings, in our conscious hours at least, are always learning. We cannot do otherwise; learning is an involuntary human activity. What varies among us is what we learn, how our learning is put to use and reinforced, and what learning is valued by a particular group of people at a particular time—our education. The result is that, while everyone learns, some learn to survive and some learn to thrive.
Unfortunately, access to the learning experiences that help people to thrive, though these depend on context, are not equally or equitably available to everyone. And although there may be value in all types of learning experiences, a deep understanding in the field of education of the range of learning experiences available to people who thrive is the first step toward ensuring adequate access to these experiences for all.
Schools, then, are only one of society's educative institutions. Although schools may be the most widely recognized of such institutions, a theory of education must encompass not just a theory of schooling but also a theory of the relation of various educative interactions and institutions with one another and to the members of the society at large. And a vision of educational equity must become a vision of providing access not just to schooling but also to these other resources.
Holistic approach to learning
- High quality early childhood education programs
- Rigorous and challenging curricula for all students
- High quality teaching
- Effective, sustained educational leadership
- Appropriate class sizes
- Mental and physical health care services
- Appropriate academic support for English language learners
- Appropriate academic support for special education students
- Appropriate academic support for children in areas of highly concentrated poverty
- Effective after-school, community, and summer programs
- Effective parental involvement and family support
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Policies that foster racially and economically diverse schools
FUNDING
Throughout the United States, wide performance gaps exist between poor and minority students and their peers in other groups. The inequities that result in those performance gaps carry enormous costs, not only for the children and families involved, but for the nation as a whole. The annual price tag of inadequately educating our young people is staggering, in the realm of $250 billion per year in health and welfare costs, criminal justice expenses, and lost tax revenues. The heavy toll on the social and civic fabric of the nation is an additional, inestimable price that we all pay every year.
If we are to meet the global economic challenges of an increasingly "flat world," if we are to prepare our students to be capable civic participants in our democratic society, and if we are to fulfill the moral imperative of ensuring that a child's racial/ethnic, socioeconomic, or family background no longer predicts that child's educational attainment or level of achievement, we need a comprehensive approach to educational equity that attends to the full array of factors that affect educational opportunity.
Since late in the 20th century, there has been a burgeoning of initiatives, programs, projects, and activities that fall under the umbrella of what we are calling "comprehensive educational equity" by seeking to integrate education and supports and services in other areas that enhance students' abilities to succeed.
A wide range of institutions, from federal and state governments to national and local foundations, to individual schools, carries out some type of "comprehensive educational equity" effort. The delivery models employed include community, full-service, and extended schools; comprehensive early childhood programs; school-linked services projects; school-community partnerships; private interagency commissions; family support and education programs; integrated-services initiatives; comprehensive community initiatives; and state programs and broad national legislation.
Within these models, individual efforts have varying goals, rationales, methodologies, scopes, participants, scales, and time frames. The proliferation of these efforts provides a rich and complex field of study for potential models, best practices, and policy direction on which to build. Their many variations point to challenges for study, evaluation, and replication.
CONCLUSION
Equity in the class room is not an easy task, but a necessity. As we continue to create equity in our classrooms were contributing and enhancing peoples lives. We are better equipping students, parents, communities, America, and the World. We must recognize what is going on with our students by communicating with them in order to make the right assessment. We as educators must think outside the box. Times are changing so the way we educate must change as well.
References
Edmund, W., Gordon, M., Rebeell A. (2007) Toward a Comprehensive System of Education for All Children. Teachers College Record , 109 no.7, 1836–43
Lee, V., Ready, D., Welner, K. (2004) Education Equity and School Structure: School Size, Overcrowding, and School-Within-School. Teachers College Record , 106 no.10, 1989-2014
David, K. (2006) Boys and Girls Together: A Case for Creating Gender-Friendly Middle School Classrooms. The Clearing House , 79 no.6, 247-51
Hertzog, N. (2005) Equity and Access: Creating General Education Classrooms Responsive to Potential Giftedness. Journal for the Education of the Gifted , 29 no.2 213-57
Shutkin, D. (2004) Thinking of the Other: Constructivist Discourse and Cultural Difference in the Field of Educational Technology. Journal of Educational Thought , 38 no.1 67-93
Zirkel, S. (2005) Ongoing Issues of Racial and Ethnic Stigma in Education 50 Years after Brown v. Board. The Urban Review , 37 no.2 107-26


8.1.1D: Prestige
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Prestige refers to the reputation or esteem associated with one’s position in society, which is closely tied to their social class.
Learning Objectives
- Compare the two types of prestige – achieved and ascribed, and how prestige is related to power, property and social mobility
Key Points
- Prestige used to be associated with one’s family name, but for most people in developed countries, prestige is now generally tied to one’s occupation.
- Highly skilled occupations tend to have more prestige associated with them than low skill occupations.
- Prestige is often related to the other two indicators of social class – property and power.
- Prestige is an important element in social mobility.
Key Terms
- occupation : A regular activity performed in exchange for payment, including jobs and professions.
- social class : A group of people in a stratified hierarchy, based on social power, wealth, educational attainment, and other criteria.
- prestige : A measure of how good the reputation of something or someone is, or how favorably something or someone is regarded.
Prestige refers to the reputation or esteem associated with one’s position in society. A person can earn prestige by his or her own achievements, which is known as achieved status, or they can be placed in the stratification system by their inherited position, which is called ascribed status. For example, prestige used to be associated with one’s family name (ascribed status), but for most people in developed countries, prestige is now generally tied to one’s occupation (achieved status). Occupations like physicians or lawyers tend to have more prestige associated with them than occupations like bartender or janitor. An individual’s prestige is closely tied to their social class – the higher the prestige of an individual (through their occupation or, sometimes, their family name), the higher their social class.
Prestige is often related to the other two indicators of social class – property and power. A Supreme Court justice, for example, is usually wealthy, enjoys a great deal of prestige, and exercises significant power. In some cases, however, a person ranks differently on these indicators, such as funeral directors. Their prestige is fairly low, but most have higher incomes than college professors, who are among the most educated people in America and have high prestige.
Prestige is a strong element in social mobility. On the one hand, choosing certain occupations or attending certain schools can influence a person’s level of prestige. While these opportunities are not equally available to everyone, one’s choices can, at least to a limited extent, increase or decrease one’s prestige, and lead to social mobility. On the other hand, certain elements of prestige are fixed; family name, place of birth, parents’ occupations, etc., are unchangeable parts of prestige that cause social stratification.


1.2.4: Mental Health Disorders
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Mental illness or disorders are often categorized into Mood Disorders, Anxiety Disorders, Psychotic Disorders, and Eating Disorders.
Mood disorders, also called affective disorders, affect your emotional state focusing on how you feel from extreme sadness to extreme happiness. Anxiety disorders occur when a person responds to something with fear or dread and has a severe stress response that may include physical reactions such as rapid heart rate, overwhelming worry, muscle tension, trouble sleeping, nausea, and diarrhea. Psychotic Disorders, also called thought disorders, involve distorted awareness or thinking.
Mood Disorders include:
- Depression
- Bipolar disorders
- Seasonal affective disorder
Anxiety Disorders include:
- General anxiety
- Specific phobias and Agoraphobia
- Post-traumatic stress disorder
- Panic disorder
- Social anxiety disorder
Psychotic Disorders include:
- Schizophrenia
Eating Disorders include
- Anorexia Nervosa
- Bulimia Nervosa
- Binge Eating
Depression
Depression (major depressive disorder or clinical depression) is the most common mood disorder characterized by severe symptoms that affect how you feel, think, and handle daily activities, such as sleeping, eating, or working. Depression is more than just feeling down or having a bad day. When a sad mood lasts for a long time and interferes with normal, everyday functioning, you may be clinically depressed.
It is estimated that about 1 out of every 6 adults will have depression at some time in their life. There are varying levels of depression and causes of depression. A person with persistent depressive disorder (also called dysthymia) means they have suffered from depressed mood that lasts for at least two years. A woman with perinatal depression has experienced full-blown major depression during pregnancy or after delivery (postpartum depression).
Symptoms of depression include:
- Feeling sad or anxious often or all the time
- Not wanting to do activities that used to be fun
- Feeling irritable‚ easily frustrated‚ or restless
- Having trouble falling asleep or staying asleep
- Waking up too early or sleeping too much
- Eating more or less than usual or having no appetite
- Experiencing aches, pains, headaches, or stomach problems that do not improve with treatment
- Having trouble concentrating, remembering details, or making decisions
- Feeling tired‚ even after sleeping well
- Feeling guilty, worthless, or helpless
- Thinking about suicide or hurting yourself
Not everyone who is depressed experiences every symptom. Some people experience only a few symptoms while others may experience many. Several persistent symptoms in addition to low mood are required for a diagnosis of major depression, but people with only a few – but distressing – symptoms may benefit from treatment of their “subsyndromal” depression. The severity and frequency of symptoms and how long they last will vary depending on the individual and his or her particular illness. Symptoms may also vary depending on the stage of the illness.
📌 The national rise in anxiety and depression began around 2011. The generation born between 1995 and 2112 are growing up more slowly, have spent less time unsupervised, and have hit fewer developmental milestones on the path to autonomy (e.g., getting a job or a driver's license), compared with 18-year-olds in previous generations (Twenge, 2018). They have far higher rates of anxiety and depression. The increases for females are generally much larger than for males, as evidenced by rising hospital admission rates of self-harm and in rising suicide rates. The suicide rate of adolescent girls has doubled since 2007. The primary cause of the increase in mental illness is frequent use of smartphones and other electronic devices. Less than two hours a day seems to have no deleterious effects, but adolescents who spend several hours a day interacting with screens, particularly if they start in their early teen years or younger, have worse mental health outcomes than do adolescents who use these devices less and who spend more time in face-to-face interaction (Lukianoff & Haidt, 2018).
Girls may be suffering more than boys because they are more adversely affected by social comparisons (especially based on digitally enhanced beauty), by signals that they are being left out, and by relational aggression, all of which became easier to enact and harder to escape when adolescents have smartphones and social media (Lukianoff & Haidt, 2018).
Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder characterized by intense mood swings. Sometimes you may feel extremely “up,” elated, irritable, or energized. This is called a manic episode. Other times you may feel “down,” sad, indifferent, or hopeless. This is called a depressive episode. You may have both manic and depressive symptoms together. This is called a mixed episode.
Symptoms of Bipolar include:
-
The symptoms of a manic episode can include
- Feeling very up, high, or elated
- Feeling jumpy or wired, more active than usual
- Having a very short temper or seeming extremely irritable
- Having racing thoughts and talking very fast
- Needing less sleep
- Feeling like you are unusually important, talented, or powerful
- Do risky things that show poor judgment, such as eating and drinking too much, spending or giving away a lot of money, or having reckless sex
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The symptoms of a depressive episode can include
- Feeling very sad, hopeless, or worthless
- Feeling lonely or isolating yourself from others
- Talking very slowly, feeling like you have nothing to say, or forgetting a lot
- Having little energySleeping too much
- Eating too much or too little
- Lack of interest in your usual activities and being unable to do even simple things
- Thinking about death or suicide
- The symptoms of a mixed episode include both manic and depressive symptoms together. For example, you may feel very sad, empty, or hopeless, while at the same time feeling extremely energized.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
SAD is a specific type of Depression (a mood disorder) that comes and goes with the seasons.
Seasonal affective disorder is characterized by the onset of depression during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight. This depression generally lifts during spring and summer. Winter depression, typically accompanied by social withdrawal, increased sleep, and weight gain, predictably returns every year in seasonal affective disorder.
Symptoms of SAD include:
- Sadness
- Gloomy outlook
- Feeling hopeless, worthless, and irritable
- Loss of interest or pleasure in activities you used to enjoy
- Low energy
- Difficulty sleeping or oversleeping
- Carbohydrate cravings and weight gain
- Thoughts of death or suicide
General Anxiety
Generalized Anxiety Disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by excessive worrying. People with GAD excessively worry about ordinary daily issues such as health, money, work, and family on most days for at least 6 months.
Symptoms of GAD include:
- Feeling restless, wound-up, or on-edge
- Being easily fatigued
- Having difficulty concentrating; mind going blank
- Being irritable
- Having muscle tension
- Difficulty controlling feelings of worry
- Having sleep problems, such as difficulty falling or staying asleep, restlessness, or unsatisfying sleep
Panic Disorder
Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent unexpected panic attacks, which are sudden periods of intense fear that may include palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate; sweating; trembling or shaking; sensations of shortness of breath, smothering, or choking; and feeling of impending doom.
Symptoms of panic disorder include:
- Heart palpitations, a pounding heartbeat, or an accelerated heartrate
- Sweating
- Trembling or shaking
- Sensations of shortness of breath, smothering, or choking
- Feelings of impending doom
- Feelings of being out of control
People with panic disorder often worry about when the next attack will happen and actively try to prevent future attacks by avoiding places, situations, or behaviors they associate with panic attacks. Worry about panic attacks, and the effort spent trying to avoid attacks, cause significant problems in various areas of the person’s life, including the development of agoraphobia.
Specific Phobias and Agoraphobia
A phobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by a strong, irrational fear of something that poses little or no real danger. There are many specific phobias such as the fear of heights which is called Acrophobia, or the fear of spiders termed Arachnophobia. A person who has a fear of public spaces is termed Agoraphobia. If you become anxious and extremely self-conscious in everyday social situations, you could have a social phobia, also referred to as a social anxiety disorder.
Symptoms of specific phobias include:
- May have an irrational or excessive worry about encountering the feared object or situation
- Take active steps to avoid the feared object or situation
- Experience immediate intense anxiety upon encountering the feared object or situation
- Endure unavoidable objects and situations with intense anxiety
Agoraphobia: People with agoraphobia have an intense fear of two or more of the following situations:
- Using public transportation
- Being in open spaces
- Being in enclosed spaces
- Standing in line or being in a crowd
- Being outside of the home alone
People with agoraphobia often avoid these situations, in part, because they think being able to leave might be difficult or impossible in the event they have panic-like reactions or other embarrassing symptoms. In the most severe form of agoraphobia, an individual can become housebound.
Social Anxiety Disorder (social phobia)
Social anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by a general intense fear of, or anxiety toward, social or performance situations. They worry that actions or behaviors associated with their anxiety will be negatively evaluated by others, leading them to feel embarrassed.
Symptoms of Social Anxiety Disorder include:
- Feeling highly anxious about being with other people and having a hard time talking to them
- Feeling very self-conscious in front of other people and worried about feeling humiliated, embarrassed, or rejected, or fearful of offending others
- Being very afraid that other people will judge them
- Worrying for days or weeks before an event where other people will be
- Staying away from places where there are other people
- Having a hard time making friends and keeping friends
- Blushing, sweating, or trembling around other people
- Feeling nauseous or sick to your stomach when other people are around
Post-traumatic stress disorder
PTSD is an anxiety disorder that develops in some people who have experienced a shocking, scary, or dangerous event. The “fight of flight” reaction is a natural process meant to keep a person from harm when in traumatic experiences, however for those with PTSD the reaction continues for a long period of time or they experience the reaction even when they are not in danger.
Symptoms include:
-
To be diagnosed with PTSD, an adult must have all of the following for at least 1 month:
- At least one re-experiencing symptom
- At least one avoidance symptom
- At least two arousal and reactivity symptoms
- At least two cognition and mood symptoms
-
Re-experiencing symptoms include:
- Flashbacks—reliving the trauma over and over, including physical symptoms like a racing heart or sweating
- Bad dreams
- Frightening thoughts
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. People with schizophrenia may seem like they have lost touch with reality, which causes significant distress for the individual, their family members, and friends. Schizophrenia is typically diagnosed in the late teen years to the early thirties and tends to emerge earlier in males (late adolescence – early twenties) than females (early twenties – early thirties).
Symptoms of Schizophrenia include:
-
Psychotic Symptoms
- Hallucinations, such as hearing voices or seeing things that aren’t there
- Delusions, which are firmly held beliefs not supported by objective facts (e.g., paranoia – irrational fears that others are “out to get you” or believing that the television, radio, or internet are broadcasting special messages that require some response)
-
Negative Symptoms
- Reduced motivation and difficulty planning, beginning, and sustaining activities
- Diminished feelings of pleasure in everyday life
- “Flat affect,” or reduced expression of emotions via facial expression or voice tone
- Reduced speaking
-
Cognitive Symptoms
- Difficulty processing information to make decisions
- Problems using information immediately after learning it
- Trouble focusing or paying attention
Eating Disorders and Mental Health
Eating disorders are not a choice, rather they are serious and often fatal illnesses that are associated with severe disturbances in people’s eating behaviors and related thoughts and emotions. Researchers are finding that eating disorders are caused by a complex interaction of genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors.
Review chapter 4 for more in-depth explanations of common eating disorders.
Suicide
Suicide is a major public health concern. In 2020, an estimated 12.2 million American adults seriously thought about suicide, 3.2 million planned a suicide attempt, 1.2 million attempted suicide, and 45,979 died by suicide. In 2020, suicide was among the top 9 leading causes of death for people ages 10-64 and the second leading cause of death for people ages 10-14 and 25-34. Depression, substance use disorders, and psychosis are the most relevant risk factors for suicide, with anxiety, personality, eating, and trauma-related disorders also contributing to risk of suicide. Most people, could be at least 90%, who have died by suicide have suffered from mental disorders [7] . Suicide is complicated and tragic but it is often preventable. Knowing the warning signs for suicide and how to get help can help save lives.
Harvard University and UC Berkeley found that 9 out of 10 people who attempt suicide and survive will not go on to die by suicide at a later date.
“One of the things that I’ve learned in this whole fight from the very beginning when I got into it was the power of the access restriction method,” Muller says. “You don’t have to have a degree in psychology to restrict access to lethal means. You may need nothing more than, for instance, gun locks. Reducing that access means you buy the suicidal individual more time and that gives them time for counseling treatment. It gives [professionals] an opportunity to pull them off the edge.”
Suicidal thoughts or actions are a sign of extreme distress and should not be ignored .
Warning signs that someone may be at immediate risk for attempting suicide include:
- Talking about wanting to die or wanting to kill themselves
- Talking about feeling empty or hopeless or having no reason to live
- Talking about feeling trapped or feeling that there are no solutions
- Feeling unbearable emotional or physical pain
- Talking about being a burden to others
- Withdrawing from family and friends
- Giving away important possessions
- Saying goodbye to friends and family
- Putting affairs in order, such as making a will
- Taking great risks that could lead to death, such as driving extremely fast
- Talking or thinking about death often
Other serious warning signs that someone may be at risk for attempting suicide include:
- Displaying extreme mood swings, suddenly changing from very sad to very calm or happy
- Making a plan or looking for ways to kill themselves, such as searching for lethal methods online, stockpiling pills, or buying a gun
- Talking about feeling great guilt or shame
- Using alcohol or drugs more often
- Acting anxious or agitated
- Changing eating or sleeping habits
- Showing rage or talking about seeking revenge
Risk Factors for suicide
- Depression, other mental disorders, or substance use disorder
- Chronic pain
- A history of suicide attempts
- Family history of a mental disorder or substance use
- Family history of suicide
- Exposure to family violence, including physical or sexual abuse
- Presence of guns or other firearms in the home
- Having recently been released from prison or jail
- Exposure, either directly or indirectly, to others’ suicidal behavior, such as that of family members, peers, or celebrities
How can you help? 5 Action Steps for Helping Someone in Emotional Pain
- Ask: “Are you thinking about killing yourself?” It’s not an easy question but studies show that asking at-risk individuals if they are suicidal does not increase suicides or suicidal thoughts.
- Keep them safe: Reducing a suicidal person’s access to highly lethal items or places is an important part of suicide prevention. While this is not always easy, asking if the at-risk person has a plan and removing or disabling the lethal means can make a difference.
- Be there: Listen carefully and learn what the individual is thinking and feeling. Findings suggest acknowledging and talking about suicide may in fact reduce rather than increase suicidal thoughts.
-
Help them connect with help
- Call the toll-free National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 988, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The service is available to everyone.
- You can also connect 24/7 to a crisis counselor by texting the Crisis Text Line. Text HOME to 741741.
- The deaf and hard of hearing can contact the Lifeline via TTY at 1-800-799-4889.
- You can also help make a connection with a trusted individual like a family member, friend, spiritual advisor, or mental health professional.
- Stay Connected: Staying in touch after a crisis or after being discharged from care can make a difference. Studies have shown the number of suicide deaths goes down when someone follows up with the at-risk person.


6.3: The Infinitude of Primes
The highlight of this section is Theorem 6.25, which states that there are infinitely many primes. The first known proof of this theorem is in Euclid’s Elements (c. 300 BCE). Euclid stated it as follows:
Proposition IX.20. Prime numbers are more than any assigned multitude of prime numbers.
There are a few interesting observations to make about Euclid’s proposition and his proof. First, notice that the statement of the theorem does not contain the word “infinity.” The Greek’s were skittish about the idea of infinity. Thus, he proved that there were more primes than any given finite number. Today we would say that there are infinitely many. In fact, Euclid proved that there are more than three primes and concluded that there were more than any finite number. While such a proof is not considered valid in the modern era, we can forgive Euclid for this less-than-rigorous proof; in fact, it is easy to turn his proof into the general one that you will give below. Lastly, Euclid’s proof was geometric. He was viewing his numbers as line segments with integral length. The modern concept of number was not developed yet.
Prior to tackling a proof of Theorem 6.25, we need to prove a couple of preliminary results. The proof of the first result is provided for you.
Theorem 6.23. The only natural number that divides \(1\) is \(1\) .
Let \(m\) be a natural number that divides \(1\) . We know that \(m\geq 1\) because 1 is the smallest positive integer. Since \(m\) divides \(1\) , there exists \(k\in \mathbb{N}\) such that \(1=mk\) . Since \(k\geq 1\) , we see that \(mk\geq m\) . But \(1=mk\) , and so \(1\geq m\) . Thus, we have \(1\leq m \leq 1\) , which implies that \(m=1\) , as desired.
For the next theorem, try utilizing a proof by contradiction together with Theorem 6.23.
Theorem 6.24. Let \(p\) be a prime number and let \(n\in \mathbb{Z}\) . If \(p\) divides \(n\) , then \(p\) does not divide \(n+1\) .
We are now ready to prove the following important theorem. Use a proof by contradiction. In particular, assume that there are finitely many primes, say \(p_1, p_2,\ldots,p_k\) . Consider the product of all of them and then add 1.
Theorem 6.25. There are infinitely many prime numbers.
We conclude this chapter with a fun problem involving prime numbers. This problem comes from David Richeson (Dickinson College).
Problem 6.26. Start with the first \(n\) prime numbers, \(p_1,\ldots, p_n\) . Divide them into two sets. Let \(a\) be the product of the primes in one set and let \(b\) be the product of the primes in the other set. Assume the product is 1 if the set is empty. For example, if \(n=5\) , we could have \(\{2,7\}\) and \(\{3,5,11\}\) , and so \(a=14\) and \(b=165\) . In general, what can we conclude about \(a+b\) and \(a-b\) ? Form a conjecture and then prove it.


22.13B: Absorption of Monosaccharides, Amino Acids, Dipeptides, Tripeptides, Lipids, Electrolytes, Vitamins, and Water
Glucose, amino acids, fats, and vitamins are absorbed in the small intestine via the action of hormones and electrolytes.
- Describe the process of absorption of nutrients in the small intestine
Key Points
- Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids (di- and tripeptides) before their absorption by proteolytic and digestive enzymes such as trypsin.
- Lipids (fats) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol by pancreatic lipase.
- Carbohydrates are degraded into monosaccharide or oligosaccharide sugars by the action of amylase. Carbohydrates, such as cellulose, pass through the human intestinal tract undigested.
- Water and some water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion.
Key Terms
- trypsin : A digestive enzyme that cleaves peptide bonds (a serine protease).
- lipase : Any of a group of enzymes that catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids.
- amylase : Any of a class of digestive enzymes that are present in saliva and that break down complex carbohydrates, such as starch, into simpler sugars, such as glucose.
EXAMPLES
During breastfeeding, the lactase enzyme breaks down lactose (milk sugar). However, lactase production ceases after weaning in most populations, so adults in those populations experience gastric discomfort or distress when eating dairy products.
Digestive Enzymes and the Small Intestine
The small intestine is where most chemical digestion occurs. Most of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct.
The enzymes enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. The hormone secretin also causes bicarbonate to be released into the small intestine from the pancreas in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid that comes from the stomach.
Small intestine : This image shows the position of the small intestine in the gastrointestinal tract.
The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are:
- Proteins. These are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption. Their chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the large intestine. Proteolytic enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin, are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides. Carboxypeptidase, which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme, splits one amino acid at a time. Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the final amino acid products.
- Lipids (fats). These are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol. Pancreatic lipase breaks down the triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and the gall bladder. Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them and aid access by pancreatic lipase. This occurs because the lipase is water soluble, but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings. The bile salts are the main thing that holds the triglycerides in their watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that can enter the villi for absorption.
- Carbohydrates. Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars, or monosaccharides (e.g., glucose ). Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates (notably starch) into oligosaccharides. Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine for further handling by intestinal bacteria.
Brush Border Enzymes
Brush border enzymes take over from there. The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase that further break down oligosaccharides. Other brush border enzymes are maltase, sucrase, and lactase.
Lactase is absent in most adult humans and so lactose, like most polysaccharides, is not digested in their small intestine. Some carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are not digested at all despite being made of multiple glucose units. This is because the cellulose is made out of beta-glucose that makes the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch, which consists of alpha-glucose. Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta-glucose-bonds, something reserved for herbivores and the bacteria from the large intestine.
The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E are absorbed in the upper small intestine. The factors that cause the malabsorption of fat can also affect the absorption of these vitamins. Vitamin B12 is absorbed in the ilium and must be bound to intrinsic factor, a protein secreted in the stomach, in order to be absorbed. If intrinsic factor is missing, then Vitamin B12 is not absorbed and pernicious anemia results.
Of the water-soluble vitamins, the transport of folate and B12 across the apical membrane are independent from sodium (Na+), but the other water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by Na+ co-transporters. In physiology, the primary ions of electrolytes are sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), chloride (Cl−), hydrogen phosphate (HPO42−), and hydrogen carbonate (HCO3−).
Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid and is involved in fluid balance and blood pressure control. Electrolyte balance is regulated by hormones, generally with the kidneys flushing out excess levels. In humans, electrolyte homeostasis is regulated by hormones such as the antidiuretic, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormones.
Serious electrolyte disturbances, such as dehydration and over-hydration, may lead to cardiac and neurological complications that, unless they are rapidly resolved, will result in a medical emergency. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic—about 5.6 to 6.9.
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4.5: File Management
Ribbon
In Windows 10, the File Explorer features a new ribbon toolbar, like the one featured in the recent versions of Microsoft Office. This ribbon contains buttons and commands for the most common tasks.
Home Tab of Windows 10 Ribbon
The Ribbon features four tabs, each with different commands. Among the tasks, you can perform from the Home tab is (Tutorialspoint.com, n.d.) −
- Copying and pasting files and folders from one place to another.
- Moving files and folders to another location.
- Copying files and folders to another location.
- Deleting a file or folder permanently or sending it to the Recycle Bin.
- Renaming a file or folder.
- Creating a new folder or other new items.
- Verifying or modifying the Properties of a document or folder.
- Opening a file or folder.
- Different options to select one or various files and folders.
Share Tab of the Windows 10 Ribbon
The Share ribbon gives you different options to share your files and folders. For example: (Tutorialspoint.com, n.d.)
- E-mailing or messaging a file.
- Compressing (“Zip”) a folder to take less space.
- Printing or faxing documents.
- Sharing with other users or networks.
View Tab of the Windows 10 Ribbon
The View ribbon allows you to change the way Windows displays your files and folders. Some of the changes you can make here are (Tutorialspoint.com, n.d.) −
- Adding additional panes to show a preview or details of your files.
- Changing the layout of the files and folders from icons to list, and others.
- Sorting and arranging the contents of your folder.
- Hiding selected folders or files.
File Tab of the Windows 10 Ribbon
The File tab opens a menu with different options like
- Opening a new File Explorer window.
- Open command prompt (DOS) advanced users.
- Providing more options to change or configure file explorer.
- Frequent places that will link users to specific file folders that are often used.
Windows File Explorer
File Explorer is an application built into Windows 10 to help the user find, browse, and select folders and files. The main way to access the File Explorer is by clicking the folder icon in the Taskbar. After clicking the icon, the File Explorer window will open.
The initial File Explorer window is comprised of the File Explorer Ribbon, the Navigation Pane, Frequent Folders, and Recent Files.
Organize your files
A common method to organize your files is to place them in folders, which can contain files and other folders. Folders can be stored on multiple locations on your PC. The specific location or address allows your computer to keep track of where each file is located. You may also create a Windows File Explorer window for each folder you are working in. Files and Folders may be moved between folders by clicking on the file/folder and dragging the file/folder to the new location.
Cut, Copy, and Paste
One of the most common operations for users is cut, copy, or pasting files & folders. Pasting a file inserts the new file into the new location. Selecting “Cut” to a file will remove it from its current location and paste the file to its new location. The “Copy” command creates a replica of an original file and pastes the file in the selected location. To copy a file, select the file you want to copy and click Copy under the Home tab. In addition, you can copy or move a file without leaving your current location. Under the Home tab within the Organize group, click ‘Copy to’ or ‘Move to’ button, and choose the location if it’s listed, or click the Choose Location button and select the location.
Check for Understanding
- Demonstrate the creation of a new folder. Place a folder in that folder. Create another folder in that folder. Rename the Original Folder.
- Perform the following: create a folder in your “Documents” folder. Drag the new folder into the “Downloads Folder”
- Cut a newly created folder in the “Downloads folder” and paste it into the “Pictures” folder.


21.1: Introduction
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All living things on earth are formed mostly of carbon compounds. The prevalence of carbon compounds in living things has led to the epithet “carbon-based” life. The truth is we know of no other kind of life. Early chemists regarded substances isolated from organisms (plants and animals) as a different type of matter that could not be synthesized artificially, and these substances were thus known as organic compounds . The widespread belief called vitalism held that organic compounds were formed by a vital force present only in living organisms. The German chemist Friedrich Wohler was one of the early chemists to refute this aspect of vitalism, when, in 1828, he reported the synthesis of urea, a component of many body fluids, from nonliving materials. Since then, it has been recognized that organic molecules obey the same natural laws as inorganic substances, and the category of organic compounds has evolved to include both natural and synthetic compounds that contain carbon. Some carbon-containing compounds are not classified as organic, for example, carbonates and cyanides, and simple oxides, such as CO and CO 2 . Although a single, precise definition has yet to be identified by the chemistry community, most agree that a defining trait of organic molecules is the presence of carbon as the principal element, bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms.
Today, organic compounds are key components of plastics, soaps, perfumes, sweeteners, fabrics, pharmaceuticals, and many other substances that we use every day. The value to us of organic compounds ensures that organic chemistry is an important discipline within the general field of chemistry. In this chapter, we discuss why the element carbon gives rise to a vast number and variety of compounds, how those compounds are classified, and the role of organic compounds in representative biological and industrial settings.