6.2: The Early Years of the Revolution
After the British quit Boston, they slowly adopted a strategy to isolate New England from the rest of the colonies and force the insurgents in that region into submission, believing that doing so would end the conflict. At first, British forces focused on taking the principal colonial centers. They began by easily capturing New York City in 1776. The following year, they took over the American capital of Philadelphia. The larger British effort to isolate New England was implemented in 1777. That effort ultimately failed when the British surrendered a force of over five thousand to the Americans in the fall of 1777 at the Battle of Saratoga.
The major campaigns over the next several years took place in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, whose populations were sharply divided between Loyalists and Patriots. Revolutionaries faced many hardships as British superiority on the battlefield became evident and the difficulty of funding the war caused strains.
THE BRITISH STRATEGY IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES
After evacuating Boston in March 1776, British forces sailed to Nova Scotia to regroup. They devised a strategy, successfully implemented in 1776, to take New York City. The following year, they planned to end the rebellion by cutting New England off from the rest of the colonies and starving it into submission. Three British armies were to move simultaneously from New York City, Montreal, and Fort Oswego to converge along the Hudson River; British control of that natural boundary would isolate New England.
General William Howe (Figure 6.2.1), commander in chief of the British forces in America, amassed thirty-two thousand troops on Staten Island in June and July 1776. His brother, Admiral Richard Howe, controlled New York Harbor. Command of New York City and the Hudson River was their goal. In August 1776, General Howe landed his forces on Long Island and easily routed the American Continental Army there in the Battle of Long Island (August 27). The Americans were outnumbered and lacked both military experience and discipline. Sensing victory, General and Admiral Howe arranged a peace conference in September 1776, where Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and South Carolinian John Rutledge represented the Continental Congress. Despite the Howes’ hopes, however, the Americans demanded recognition of their independence, which the Howes were not authorized to grant, and the conference disbanded.
On September 16, 1776, George Washington’s forces held up against the British at the Battle of Harlem Heights. This important American military achievement, a key reversal after the disaster on Long Island, occurred as most of Washington’s forces retreated to New Jersey. A few weeks later, on October 28, General Howe’s forces defeated Washington’s at the Battle of White Plains and New York City fell to the British. For the next seven years, the British made the city the headquarters for their military efforts to defeat the rebellion, which included raids on surrounding areas. In 1777, the British burned Danbury, Connecticut, and in July 1779, they set fire to homes in Fairfield and Norwalk. They held American prisoners aboard ships in the waters around New York City; the death toll was shocking, with thousands perishing in the holds. Meanwhile, New York City served as a haven for Loyalists who disagreed with the effort to break away from the Empire and establish an American republic.
GEORGE WASHINGTON AND THE CONTINENTAL ARMY
When the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775, members approved the creation of a professional Continental Army with Washington as commander in chief (Figure 6.2.2). Although sixteen thousand volunteers enlisted, it took several years for the Continental Army to become a truly professional force. In 1775 and 1776, militias still composed the bulk of the Patriots’ armed forces, and these soldiers returned home after the summer fighting season, drastically reducing the army’s strength.
That changed in late 1776 and early 1777, when Washington broke with conventional eighteenth-century military tactics that called for fighting in the summer months only. Intent on raising revolutionary morale after the British captured New York City, he launched surprise strikes against British forces in their winter quarters. In Trenton, New Jersey, he led his soldiers across the Delaware River and surprised an encampment of Hessians, German mercenaries hired by Great Britain to put down the American rebellion. Beginning the night of December 25, 1776, and continuing into the early hours of December 26, Washington moved on Trenton where the Hessians were encamped. Maintaining the element of surprise by attacking at Christmastime, he defeated them, taking over nine hundred captive. On January 3, 1777, Washington achieved another much-needed victory at the Battle of Princeton. He again broke with eighteenth-century military protocol by attacking unexpectedly after the fighting season had ended.
During the American Revolution, following the publication of Common Sense in January 1776, Thomas Paine began a series of sixteen pamphlets known collectively as The American Crisis (Figure 6.2.3). He wrote the first volume in 1776, describing the dire situation facing the revolutionaries at the end of that hard year.
These are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. . . . Britain, with an army to enforce her tyranny, has declared that she has a right (not only to tax) but “to bind us in all cases whatsoever,” and if being bound in that manner, is not slavery, then is there not such a thing as slavery upon earth. Even the expression is impious; for so unlimited a power can belong only to God. . . .
I shall conclude this paper with some miscellaneous remarks on the state of our affairs; and shall begin with asking the following question, Why is it that the enemy have left the New England provinces, and made these middle ones the seat of war? The answer is easy: New England is not infested with Tories, and we are. I have been tender in raising the cry against these men, and used numberless arguments to show them their danger, but it will not do to sacrifice a world either to their folly or their baseness. The period is now arrived, in which either they or we must change our sentiments, or one or both must fall. . . .
By perseverance and fortitude we have the prospect of a glorious issue; by cowardice and submission, the sad choice of a variety of evils—a ravaged country—a depopulated city—habitations without safety, and slavery without hope—our homes turned into barracks and bawdy-houses for Hessians, and a future race to provide for, whose fathers we shall doubt of. Look on this picture and weep over it! and if there yet remains one thoughtless wretch who believes it not, let him suffer it unlamented.
—Thomas Paine, “The American Crisis,” December 23, 1776
What topics does Paine address in this pamphlet? What was his purpose in writing? What does he write about Tories (Loyalists), and why does he consider them a problem?
Visit Wikisource to read the rest of Thomas Paine’s first American Crisis pamphlet, as well as the other fifteen in the series.
PHILADELPHIA AND SARATOGA: BRITISH AND AMERICAN VICTORIES
In August 1777, General Howe brought fifteen thousand British troops to Chesapeake Bay as part of his plan to take Philadelphia, where the Continental Congress met. That fall, the British defeated Washington’s soldiers in the Battle of Brandywine Creek and took control of Philadelphia, forcing the Continental Congress to flee. During the winter of 1777–1778, the British occupied the city, and Washington’s army camped at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.
Washington’s winter at Valley Forge was a low point for the American forces. A lack of supplies weakened the men, and disease took a heavy toll. Amid the cold, hunger, and sickness, soldiers deserted in droves. On February 16, Washington wrote to George Clinton, governor of New York: “For some days past, there has been little less than a famine in camp. A part of the army has been a week without any kind of flesh & the rest three or four days. Naked and starving as they are, we cannot enough admire the incomparable patience and fidelity of the soldiery, that they have not been ere [before] this excited by their sufferings to a general mutiny and dispersion.” Of eleven thousand soldiers encamped at Valley Forge, twenty-five hundred died of starvation, malnutrition, and disease. As Washington feared, nearly one hundred soldiers deserted every week. (Desertions continued, and by 1780, Washington was executing recaptured deserters every Saturday.) The low morale extended all the way to Congress, where some wanted to replace Washington with a more seasoned leader.
Assistance came to Washington and his soldiers in February 1778 in the form of the Prussian soldier Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben (Figure 6.2.4). Baron von Steuben was an experienced military man, and he implemented a thorough training course for Washington’s ragtag troops. By drilling a small corps of soldiers and then having them train others, he finally transformed the Continental Army into a force capable of standing up to the professional British and Hessian soldiers. His drill manual— Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States —informed military practices in the United States for the next several decades.
Explore Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben’sRevolutionary War Drill Manual to understand how von Steuben was able to transform the Continental Army into a professional fighting force. Note the tremendous amount of precision and detail in von Steuben’s descriptions.
Meanwhile, the campaign to sever New England from the rest of the colonies had taken an unexpected turn during the fall of 1777. The British had attempted to implement the plan, drawn up by Lord George Germain and Prime Minister Lord North, to isolate New England with the combined forces of three armies. One army, led by General John Burgoyne, would march south from Montreal. A second force, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger and made up of British troops and Iroquois, would march east from Fort Oswego on the banks of Lake Ontario. A third force, led by General Sir Henry Clinton, would march north from New York City. The armies would converge at Albany and effectively cut the rebellion in two by isolating New England. This northern campaign fell victim to competing strategies, however, as General Howe had meanwhile decided to take Philadelphia. His decision to capture that city siphoned off troops that would have been vital to the overall success of the campaign in 1777.
The British plan to isolate New England ended in disaster. St. Leger’s efforts to bring his force of British regulars, Loyalist fighters, and Iroquois allies east to link up with General Burgoyne failed, and he retreated to Quebec. Burgoyne’s forces encountered ever-stiffer resistance as he made his way south from Montreal, down Lake Champlain and the upper Hudson River corridor. Although they did capture Fort Ticonderoga when American forces retreated, Burgoyne’s army found themselves surrounded by a sea of colonial militias in Saratoga, New York. In the meantime, the small British force under Clinton that left New York City to aid Burgoyne advanced slowly up the Hudson River, failing to provide the much-needed support for the troops at Saratoga. On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered his five thousand soldiers to the Continental Army (Figure 6.2.5).
The American victory at the Battle of Saratoga was the major turning point in the war. This victory convinced the French to recognize American independence and form a military alliance with the new nation, which changed the course of the war by opening the door to badly needed military support from France. Still smarting from their defeat by Britain in the Seven Years’ War, the French supplied the United States with gunpowder and money, as well as soldiers and naval forces that proved decisive in the defeat of Great Britain. The French also contributed military leaders, including the Marquis de Lafayette, who arrived in America in 1777 as a volunteer and served as Washington’s aide-de-camp.
The war quickly became more difficult for the British, who had to fight the rebels in North America as well as the French in the Caribbean. Following France’s lead, Spain joined the war against Great Britain in 1779, though it did not recognize American independence until 1783. The Dutch Republic also began to support the American revolutionaries and signed a treaty of commerce with the United States in 1782.
Great Britain’s effort to isolate New England in 1777 failed. In June 1778, the occupying British force in Philadelphia evacuated and returned to New York City in order to better defend that city, and the British then turned their attention to the southern colonies.
Section Summary
The British successfully implemented the first part of their strategy to isolate New England when they took New York City in the fall of 1776. For the next seven years, they used New York as a base of operations, expanding their control to Philadelphia in the winter of 1777. After suffering through a terrible winter in 1777–1778 in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, American forces were revived with help from Baron von Steuben, a Prussian military officer who helped transform the Continental Army into a professional fighting force. The effort to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies failed with the General Burgoyne’s surrender at Saratoga in October 1777. After Saratoga, the struggle for independence gained a powerful ally when France agreed to recognize the United States as a new nation and began to send much-needed military support. The entrance of France—Britain’s archrival in the contest of global empire—into the American fight helped to turn the tide of the war in favor of the revolutionaries.
Review Questions
Which city served as the base for British operations for most of the war?
Boston
New York
Philadelphia
Saratoga
B
What battle turned the tide of war in favor of the Americans?
the Battle of Saratoga
the Battle of Brandywine Creek
the Battle of White Plains
the Battle of Valley Forge
A
Which term describes German soldiers hired by Great Britain to put down the American rebellion?
Patriots
Royalists
Hessians
Loyalists
C
Describe the British strategy in the early years of the war and explain whether or not it succeeded.
The British strategy in the period from 1776 to 1778 was to isolate the New England colonies, where the rebellion was concentrated. They succeeded in the beginning by taking first New York and then Philadelphia. However, they stalled there, and after the British defeat at Saratoga, they were not able to complete their plan to isolate New England.
How did George Washington’s military tactics help him to achieve success?
In the eighteenth century, militaries typically fought only in the summer months. On December 25 and 26, 1776, Washington triumphed over the Hessians encamped at Trenton by surprising them as they celebrated Christmas. Shortly thereafter, he used this same tactic to achieve victory at the Battle of Princeton.
Glossary
- Hessians
- German mercenaries hired by Great Britain to put down the American rebellion


10.5: Assumptions of the Test(s)
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All statistical tests make assumptions, and it’s usually a good idea to check that those assumptions are met. For the chi-square tests discussed so far in this chapter, the assumptions are:
- Expected frequencies are sufficiently large . Remember how in the previous section we saw that the χ2 sampling distribution emerges because the binomial distribution is pretty similar to a normal distribution? Well, like we discussed in Chapter 9 this is only true when the number of observations is sufficiently large. What that means in practice is that all of the expected frequencies need to be reasonably big. How big is reasonably big? Opinions differ, but the default assumption seems to be that you generally would like to see all your expected frequencies larger than about 5, though for larger tables you would probably be okay if at least 80% of the the expected frequencies are above 5 and none of them are below 1. However, from what I’ve been able to discover , these seem to have been proposed as rough guidelines, not hard and fast rules; and they seem to be somewhat conservative [Larntz1978].
- Data are independent of one another . One somewhat hidden assumption of the chi-square test is that you have to genuinely believe that the observations are independent. Here’s what I mean. Suppose I’m interested in proportion of babies born at a particular hospital that are boys. I walk around the maternity wards, and observe 20 girls and only 10 boys. Seems like a pretty convincing difference, right? But later on, it turns out that I’d actually walked into the same ward 10 times, and in fact I’d only seen 2 girls and 1 boy. Not as convincing, is it? My original 30 observations were massively non-independent… and were only in fact equivalent to 3 independent observations. Obviously this is an extreme (and extremely silly) example, but it illustrates the basic issue. Non-independence “stuffs things up”. Sometimes it causes you to falsely reject the null, as the silly hospital example illustrats, but it can go the other way too.  One possibility would be that everyone selects one heart, one club, one diamond and one spade (in keeping with the “representativeness heuristic”; Tversky & Kahneman 1974). This is highly non-random behaviour from people, but in this case, I would get an observed frequency of 50 four all four suits. For this example, the fact that the observations are non-independent (because the four cards that you pick will be related to each other) actually leads to the opposite effect… falsely retaining the null.
If you happen to find yourself in a situation where independence is violated, it may be possible to use the McNemar test (which we’ll discuss) or the Cochran test (which we won’t). Similarly, if your expected cell counts are too small, check out the Fisher exact test. It is to these topics that we now turn.


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baby-friendly hospital
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facility promoting and supporting breast-feeding that does not separate the birthing person from their newborn during the entire hospital stay
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blastocyst
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group of pre-embryonic cells forming the embryo and the amnion
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Braxton Hicks contractions
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spontaneous, irregular, and painless uterine contractions that occur throughout the pregnancy; Braxton Hicks contractions normally have no effect on the cervix
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Chadwick sign
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bluish discoloration of the vagina and cervix due to the vasocongestion needed to support the growing uterus during pregnancy
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common discomforts of pregnancy
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symptoms experienced by pregnant persons due to the physiologic and anatomic changes of pregnancy, including gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, integumentary, and musculoskeletal manifestations
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couvade syndrome
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the pregnant person’s partner taking on the symptoms associated with pregnancy
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diastasis recti abdominis
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separation of the abdominal muscles caused by stretching and widening of the connective tissue that holds the muscles on each side of the abdomen
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ductus arteriosus
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shunt that connects with the pulmonary artery to the descending aorta in the fetus
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ductus venosus
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shunt that connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava of the fetus
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embryonic stage
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stage of development that begins with the completion of implantation and ends at the start of week 9 of gestation
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fetal stage
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stage of development that begins at 9 weeks of gestation and ends with birth
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foramen ovale
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shunt that moves the oxygenated blood from the right to left atrium in the fetus
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free-standing birthing center
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provides intrapartum, postpartum, and normal newborn care to low-risk persons whose pregnancy is uncomplicated and there is only one fetus in a vertex presentation
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genetics
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study of heredity and the patterns of inherited traits
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Goodell sign
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softening of the cervix and vagina and increase in vaginal mucus discharge during pregnancy
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Hegar sign
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softening of the lower uterine segment during pregnancy
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hypercoagulability
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increase in the ability of the blood to coagulate
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implantation
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when the trophoblast has successfully attached to the endometrium
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labor and birth suite
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designed to provide care to the person during the entire labor and birth process, immediate care to the newborn, and care in the first hours of recovery for the birthing person and transition for the newborn
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labor, delivery, recovery, postpartum (LDRP) suite
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provides care during the entire labor and birth process, and the entire postpartum stay, and provide immediate care to the newborn
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linea nigra
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vertical line of increased pigmentation that starts at the pubic hair line, passes through the umbilicus, and goes up to the xiphoid process
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melasma
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hyperpigmentation, or mask of pregnancy, on the face from the cheekbones to the forehead
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morula
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when the zygote has divided into 16 cells
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organogenesis
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formation and development of the organs of the body; starts in the embryonic stage
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physiologic anemia of pregnancy
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anemia caused by the increase in plasma volume being proportionally higher than the increase in RBCs during pregnancy
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pica
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strong craving for and consuming a nonfood substance, such as clay
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positive signs of pregnancy
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signs that directly confirm a person is pregnant
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presumptive signs of pregnancy
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symptoms noticed by the patient and are the least reliable symptoms of confirming a pregnancy because the signs can also occur with other medical conditions
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probable signs of pregnancy
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objective cues occurring during pregnancy and noticed by the provider and are also associated with gynecologic conditions, not just pregnancy
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pruritic urticarial papules and plaques of pregnancy (PUPPP)
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benign skin condition of pregnancy; the rash is a combination of hives, bumps, microvesicles, and plaques
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ptyalism
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excessive salivation
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quickening
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perception of fetal movement by the pregnant person
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self-care practices
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daily activities to replenish oneself physically, mentally, emotionally, socially, and spiritually, promoting health
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striae gravidarum
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reddish lines where the skin has stretched to accommodate the growth in the breasts, abdomen, and buttocks during pregnancy; also called
stretch marks
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surfactant
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mixture of fats and proteins produced in the lungs that coats the alveoli; when the newborn exhales, the surfactant keeps the alveoli from sticking together, interfering with expansion of the alveoli during the next inhalation
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teratogen
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anything known to affect the normal growth and development of the embryo or fetus
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TORCH
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group of infectious diseases that can be passed from the pregnant person to the fetus and is a known teratogen; diseases included are toxoplasmosis, other (originally only syphilis), rubella, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus
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trophoblast
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group of pre-embryonic cells forming the placenta and the chorion
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vena cava syndrome
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when the pregnant person starts feeling dizzy, weak, and sometimes nauseated when lying flat on their back because of the pressure the enlarging uterus places on the vena cava starting around 28 weeks of gestation
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viability
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ability of the fetus to survive outside the uterus


6.5: Media Exposure and Literacy in Early Childhood
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the media diets of children in early childhood
- Compare the positive and negative effects of media exposure in early childhood
Sanjay is obsessed with a cat game on his tablet. In the game, he can make a cat meow, talk, wave, and giggle. He is regularly found on his app making cat noises and giggling at the funny cat responses. His stepmother has noticed that he’d rather play his cat game than play outside, go to the park, or cuddle for story-time.
Sanjay is about to turn five and still does not know his alphabet, so his stepmother downloads a new alphabet learning game onto his tablet. She shows him how to play it once or twice and hopes that he’ll be encouraged to play. But Sanjay shows no interest in the educational game; he’d rather just play the cat game and make noises. His stepmom is wondering what her next steps should be in trying to help him to develop pre-literacy skills.
Sanjay's experience is not unusual and illustrates the importance of considering media diet and exposure in this age group.
Media Diet
For as long as humans have lived in civilized societies, we have consumed media . In ancient times, this consisted of folklore, legends, and plays. In the industrialized era, media consumption included newspapers, radio, and early photography. By the 1980s, children’s media included brightly colored picture books, cartoons on television, and songs by children’s artists. Today, children consume 100 times more media imagery than previous generations could, from streaming shows to apps and games on their tablets to songs and trivia on home smart speakers (Hawkey, 2019).
A media diet is the information to which people are exposed via mass media outlets such as television, music, video games, and electronic devices. Media diets include intentional exposure, such as a specific online videos children choose, and unintentional exposure, such as advertisements that pop up on a smartphone game. They can also include passive content that might not be noticed immediately such as background music in a shopping center, and more active content that grabs our attention such as a flashing strobe light advertising products on a billboard.
In 2011, a national survey indicated that young U.S. children tend to watch two hours of television per day and spend about one hour playing video games (Common Sense Media, 2011). Ten years later in 2021, young children’s media consumption had increased to 3.5 hours per day and their options had diversified to include smartphones, video on demand, and online streaming (Figure 6.24). However, most children’s media experts recommend that preschoolers should consume only one hour of high-quality educational programming per day and spend no time on any other type.
Children and Media Exposure
In much the same way that observation of parents, peers, and siblings teaches children about the world around them, media exposure shows children the social norms and values of their culture and their world. Images on television are captivating, song lyrics are catchy, and characters in children’s media can be inspiring, so children pay attention, encoding and retaining what they see and hear in the media.
Exposure to screens and electronic devices can both stunt and spur child development in certain circumstances. Children’s early language skills tend to develop best when they are interacting with other people face-to-face. Young children who spend too much time watching screens may not experience the beneficial interactions with their caregivers that help with facial recognition, language development, and social emotional intelligence. If television is being used as a babysitter and a substitute for high-quality time with caregivers, then this screen time is associated with children lagging in their cognitive and social emotional development.
Link to Learning
Watch this TEDx Talk about how the pace of fast-moving television shows influences the stimulation of the brain and child development outcomes to learn more.
Children who spend extremely large amounts of screen time viewing content that is high in aggression may be more likely to display aggressive and disruptive behavior, hyperactive behaviors, and poor self-regulatory skills (Holmgren et al., 2023). Observing violent television shows, video games, or music can make children become more aggressive. Overall, those who consume more aggressive and violent media tend to display more violent behavior. But this association is complex.
Watching a superhero movie may not make all children more aggressive, but it can desensitize viewers to violence. Desensitization occurs when our brains stop reacting and become numb to a certain type of event. Children, teens, and adults who consume more violent media tend to be less reactive to violence and consider it more normative. Children who are desensitized to violence may be more likely to perceive violence and aggression as appropriate and morally justified, particularly if they witness a superhero or favorable character act aggressively. They may then be more likely to act aggressively. However, this is a complex chain reaction of desensitization , normalization, justification, and action (Figure 6.25). Certainly, not everyone who consumes violent media becomes aggressive themselves.
Still, some screen time is beneficial. Mobile educational games can be particularly helpful for early development because they can provide portable outlets for creativity, problem-solving, and interactions with others. Watching educational programs alongside a parent or caregiver and discussing what they see can be an especially effective way for children to comprehend new concepts, experiences, and ideas (Sanders et al., 2019). Screens can also help facilitate communication with family who live far away or to arrange playdates between friends following a move or, as recently happened, during a pandemic (Quinones & Adams, 2020). Using mobile devices to connect with extended family members provides increased emotional attachment, familial bonds, and companionship.
Watching educational programming alongside a family member has been tied to preschoolers’ improvements in language development, literacy, numeracy, reasoning, and problem-solving. Children’s ability to understand satire, metaphors, and hidden morals in stories, to be critical of advertising and marketing in media, and to break down messages and takeaways in film and television can all be enhanced through watching as a family. Children who consume media with a family member may be more likely to become critical thinkers (Hutton et al., 2020). Helping children navigate media usage in early childhood thus requires nuance, because not all media consumption is detrimental. The recommendations for using screens in a healthy way, based on Ponti et al, 2019, can help in early childhood and beyond.
- Avoid screen time one hour before bedtime, and do not have screens in children’s bedrooms.
- Co-watch and be present when children are consuming media.
- Help children ask questions and think critically about what they are viewing, especially advertisements.
- Encourage screen use that allows for creative, educational interaction rather than passive viewing.
- Help children pick shows and videos that have positive messages and model age-appropriate behavior.
- Avoid using the TV for background noise.
- Encourage and maintain non-screen hobbies and interests.
References
Common Sense Media. (2011). Zero to Eight: Children’s Media Use in America. https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/fi...0325-82243.pdf
Hawkey, E. (2019). Media use in childhood: Evidence-based recommendations for caregivers. CYF News.
Holmgren, H. G., Stockdale, L., Shawcroft, J., Coyne, S. M., & Fraser, A. M. (2023). Toddlers and the telly: A latent profile analysis of children’s television time and content and behavioral outcomes one year later in the US. Journal of Children and Media, 17(3), 1–20. doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2023.2195194
Hutton, J. S., Huang, G., Sahay, R. D., DeWitt, T., & Ittenbach, R. F. (2020). A novel, composite measure of screen-based media use in young children (ScreenQ) and associations with parenting practices and cognitive abilities. Pediatric Research, 87 (7), 1211–1218. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-020-0765-1
Ponti, M. (2019). Screen time and preschool children: Promoting health and development in a digital world. Paediatric Child Health, 28 (3), 184–192. doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxac125
Precise TV, & Giraffe Insights. (2021). Kids and the screen: Changing the channel.
Quinones, G. & Adams, M. (2020) Children’s virtual worlds and friendships during the Covid-19 pandemic. Video Journal of Education and Pedagogy, 5, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1163/23644583-bja10015
Sanders, T., Parker, P. D., Del Pozo-Cruz, B., Noetel, M., & Lonsdale, C. (2019). Type of screen time moderates effects on outcomes in 4013 children: Evidence from the longitudinal study of Australian children. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 16 (1), 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0881-7


10.1: Why It Matters
DEFINE AND INTERPRET THE CAUSES, TYPES, EFFECTS, AND HAZARDS OF MASS MOVEMENT AND LAND SUBSIDENCE
Introduction
Mass movement can be devastating and costly. About 10 years ago, a friend was looking to purchase a new home in San Diego. She found a great neighborhood being built on the side of a mountain overlooking the town. They loved the area, the view and the home so they purchased the home site. The cost was $1.5 million.
Since this was not the first home she purchased, she knew the questions to ask and the various test that needed to be performed. One of the inspectors made note of elevated methane in the area. They thought it was temporary and would not cause any problems. However, as more people purchased homes in the area, the problem became more prominent. She contacted a geologist and asked what it could be. The geologist was from the area and was familiar with the location. They did a little research and ruled out numerous possible causes. They were stumped until one day a core sample revealed the neighborhood was being built on an old landslide area. The buried trees and vegetation were decomposing, which was causing them to give off various gases including methane. Building on the site was stopped and never proceeded due to the conditions. The time, effort, and money spent was wasted. While the homeowners did get their money back, the property owner was completed bankrupted.
Landslides and avalanches may not be something we really think about unless we live in an area prone to them, but mass wasting can occur just about anywhere. If you recall from when we learned about the rock cycle, erosion is a powerful and continuous process.
Watch this video of a fantastic earthflow in Italy:
Wasn’t that amazing?
Mass wasting can be very fast or slow. What do you make of this picture?
Do you notice anything strange about the trees? Would you want to live in an area like this?
Let’s see what mass wasting is and what it can tell us about the video and picture.
Learning Outcomes
- Identify, classify, and describe types of mass movement
- Identify and interpret driving and resisting forces on various slopes composed of various geologic materials, including geologic and human caused changes that can increase or reduce mass movement
Ok, let’s get started!
Contributors and Attributions
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Original content from Kimberly Schulte (Columbia Basin College) and supplemented by Lumen Learning . The content on this page is copyrighted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.


1.5: En contexto- Hay y los números del 0 a 30
- Use numbers 0 - 30 to talk about quantities
- The present tense of the verb haber
La palabra "hay"
Kansas en números: Uso y forma
In this section, we will use Spanish to talk about numbers ( los números ). To introduce the topic, we will focus on sociocultural and geographical/historical aspects of our state, Kansas. What aspects do you think are the most interesting about the state? What does the information in the poster tell you about Kansas?
While you are looking at the data, also pay attention to the verb hay . What do you think it means and how do we use it?
"En Kansas, hay una flor oficial, 6 universidades estatales, 3 equipos profesionales, 19 universidades comunitarias, 5 animales oficiales y 5 apodos estatales."


14.2: Advertising in Retail
- Describe how advertising is used by retailers
Marketing and promotion help facilitate exchange by providing information and context to consumers so that they are better able to understand how a specific good or service can meet their needs. Regardless of how well conceived, designed, positioned or priced a product or service may be, it cannot “speaks for itself.” It will not “sell itself,” if consumers are not aware of it or do not understand how it resolves a problem or issue for them.
Earlier, you learned about differentiation within retail, i.e. how each retailer has a target segment they’re trying to service through their assortment, pricing and other tactics. Thus, advertising is necessary to communicate these differences. Differentiation doesn’t “speak for itself.” Instead, retailers use out-bound advertising to consumers to communicate how they’re different. For example, Wal-Mart uses its advertising to showcase the breadth of its assortment and pricing to highlight the message, “Save Money. Live Better.” Target, its part, uses advertising for visual impact, showcasing style and design to highlight the message, “Expect More. Pay Less.”
Further, in-store promotion, in the form of merchandising, reinforces the differentiation, showing consumers how the assortment, signage, pricing and other features of the retailer solve the issues that are important to them. Returning to Wal-Mart, think about their Rollbacks, guarantees to match prices and use of shoppable displays, pallets and PDQs (pre-made display quantities). Now, compare this to target, which employs less signage and displays to present a “cleaner” shopping experience. Further, think about the lead-in to your Target store. Likely, you pass the One Spot, which features $1 items, before moving into apparel. Promotional tools like merchandising reinforce each retailer’s respective positioning and complement their out-bound advertising.
Advertising and promotion are also fundamentally important for helping consumers make product or service selections. And, in retail where the fight for attention is most intense, manufacturers and their brands are desperate to grab a consumer’s attention to encourage action/ transaction. The result can be “noise” or advertising clutter, making it more and more difficult to “break-through” with relevant messages. But, marketers have a wide assortment of tools to use at the Point of Purchase (POP)—from the product to the shelf to off-shelf displays.
To begin, product packaging is a canvas upon which marketers communicate brand messages, product features and benefits. It can be updated to offer:
- Seasonal or special graphics
- Specialty sizes
- Bonus packs, i.e. sellable units with extra pieces
- Trial packs, i.e. sellable units with a free sample of a related item
- Special packs, i.e. packages banded together to offer additional value or variety
Further, shelving and shelf location can be used to communicate with consumers. For example, both Campbell’s and Pillsbury have developed custom fixtures to accommodate their products and reinforce their brands in the soup and refrigerated dough categories, respectively. Channel strips, which run along the face of the shelf and are often the place where price tags are placed, can be customized for brand and product messages. Shelf Talkers, e.g. stickers, die-cuts and wobblers, are placed on the shelf, but extend into the aisle to attract shopper attention.
Outside of the shelf, there are also a number of ways for brands to break-through to consumers. For example:
- Floor graphics, i.e. durable vinyl graphics that can be customized for brand images and messages, which are placed on the floor
-
Displays
- End Caps, i.e. a display for a product placed at the end of an aisle
- Side Caps i.e. a display for a product placed at the side of the aisle end—usually Powerwing or Sidekick displays
- Shoppable Pallets, i.e. 40” x 48” shipping pallets, which have been configured with consumer shopping units, not shipping units. (Note: products usually ship in case packs, not individual units. Shoppable pallets, however, do not have cardboard outer cases.)
- Displays, e.g. PDQs like Pop-ups, Slantbacks, Powerwings Sidekicks and Counter Displays. These units have pre-made display quantities and are shipped directly from the manufacturer to retail. They are known by a number of names, dependent upon their shape and how they’re used. But, the important piece to remember is that they’re branded display vehicles intended to merchandise products away from their home shelf location and to generate attention for impulse purchases.
Each of these tools helps shoppers gather information and/ or evaluate options. Thus, marketing & promotion facilitates transactions. It is relevant for retailers trying to draw-in consumers and for brands trying to drive sales in-store.
Contributors and Attributions
- Advertising in Retail. Authored by : Patrick Williams. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


11.18: Reading- Karst Topography
Introduction
Throughout the world karst landscapes vary from rolling hills dotted with sinkholes, as found in portions of the central United States, to jagged hills and pinnacle karst found in the tropics. The development of all karst landforms requires the presence of rock which is capable of being dissolved by surface water or ground water .
The term karst describes a distinctive topography that indicates dissolution (also called chemical solution) of underlying soluble rocks by surface water or ground water. Although commonly associated with carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite) other highly soluble rocks such as evaporates (gypsum and rock salt) can be sculpted into karst terrain.
Understanding caves and karst is important because ten percent of the Earth’s surface is occupied by karst landscape and as much as a quarter of the world’s population depends upon water supplied from karst areas. Though most abundant in humid regions where carbonate rock is present, karst terrain occurs in temperate, tropical, alpine and polar environments. Karst features range in scale from microscopic (chemical precipitates) to entire drainage systems and ecosystems which cover hundreds of square miles, and broad karst plateaus.
Although karst processes sculpt beautiful landscapes, karst systems are very vulnerable to ground water pollution due to the relatively rapid rate of water flow and the lack of a natural filtration system. This puts local drinking water supplies at risk of being contaminated. In the mid 1980’s, flooding of caves in the highly populated area of Bowling Green, Kentucky, caused industrial waste to leak into the vast system of underground fissures polluting the ground water in local wells. Due to urban expansion millions of dollars is spent annually in the United States to repair damage to roads, buildings and other structures which are built on unstable karst surfaces.
Karst Topography
The degree of development of karst landforms varies greatly from region to region. Large drainage systems in karst areas are likely to have both fluvial (surface) and karst (underground) drainage components. As stated in the introduction, the term karst describes a distinctive topography that indicates dissolution of underlying rocks by surface water or ground water.
Water falls as rain or snow and soaks into the soil. The water becomes weakly acidic because it reacts chemically with carbon dioxide that occurs naturally in the atmosphere and the soil. This acid is named carbonic acid and is the same compound that makes carbonated beverages taste tangy. Rainwater seeps downward through the soil and through fractures in the rock responding to the force of gravity. The carbonic acid in the moving ground water dissolves the bedrock along the surfaces of joints, fractures and bedding planes, eventually forming cave passages and caverns.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock consisting primarily of calcium carbonate in the form of the mineral calcite. Rainwater dissolves the limestone by the following reaction: Calcite + Carbonic acid = Calcium ions dissolved in ground water + Bicarbonate ions dissolved in ground water.
Cracks and joints that interconnect in the soil and bedrock allow the water to reach a zone below the surface of the land where all the fractures and void spaces are completely filled (also known as saturated) with water. This water-rich zone is called the saturated zone and its upper surface is called the water table. The volume of void space (space filled with air or water) in soil or bedrock is termed porosity. The larger the proportion of voids in a given volume of soil or rock the greater the porosity. When these voids are interconnected, water or air (or other fluids) can migrate from void to void. Thus the soil or bedrock is said to be permeable because fluids (air and water) can easily move through them. Permeable bedrock makes a good aquifer, a rock layer that holds and conducts water. If the ground water that flows through the underlying permeable bedrock is acidic and the bedrock is soluble, a distinctive type of topography, karst topography, can be created.
The first part of our animation shows evolution of karst landforms created by downward movement of water accompanied by dissolution of rock and mass transport of sediments in stream channels. In tropical areas with thick massive limestones, a remarkable and distinctive landscape of jagged hills and narrow gorges completely dominates the landscape. Movement of solution along fractures and joints etches the bedrock and leaves limestone blocks as isolated spires or pinnacles. Pinnacles range from small features a few inches tall to intermediate forms a few feet tall to large pinnacles hundreds of feet tall. Besides the etching of pinnacles and residual hills, sheets of flowing water move down sloping surfaces creating a variety of etched surface features. Our computer animation shows the dominant landforms, such as pinnacles, cones, and towers, commonly found in the tropical karst environment of northern Puerto Rico.
Our paper model represents another type of karst landscape, that of a rolling limestone plain such as is found in south-central Kentucky, northern Florida, and the Highland Rim of central Tennessee where doline karst is the dominate feature. Doline karst is the most widely distributed type of karst landscape. The landscape is dotted with sinkholes (dolines) which can vary widely in number and size. For the Sinkhole Plain in central Kentucky, there are approximately 5.4 sinkholes per square kilometer over a 153 square kilometer area. For north Florida there are almost 8 sinkholes per square kilometer over a 427 square kilometer area (White, 1988, table 4.1, page 100).
Karst topography dominated by sinkholes or dolines usually has several distinct surface features. Our paper model shows features normally associated with karst topography. Sinkholes (also known as dolines) are surface depressions formed by either: 1) the dissolution of bedrock forming a bowl-shaped depression, or 2) the collapse of shallow caves that were formed by dissolution of the bedrock. These sinkholes or shallow basins may fill with water forming lakes or ponds. Springs are locations where ground water emerges at the surface of the earth. Disappearing streams are streams which terminate abruptly by flowing or seeping into the ground. Disappearing streams are evidence of disrupted surface drainage and thus indicate the presence of an underground drainage system. Cave entrances are natural openings in the earth large enough to allow a person to enter. Caves may reflect a complex underground drainage system.
| * Numbers are rounded to nearest kilometer | ||
| A Brief List of the Longest Caves in the United States | ||
|---|---|---|
| Name | Location | Distance Mapped* |
| Mammoth Cave—Flint Ridge System | Kentucky | 500 km |
| Jewel Cave | South Dakota | 118 km |
| Wind Cave | South Dakota | 73 km |
| Friars Hole System | West Virginia | 68 km |
| Fisher Ridge Cave System | Kentucky | 64 km |
What do Caves Contain?
Moving water may transport earth materials into and through caves physically or chemically. Caves contain interesting features as a result of the physical and chemical processes that form them. Among these features are breakdown blocks of rock formed by collapse of cave ceilings. Also seen are sediments containing boulders, sand, silt, and clay deposited from water flowing in and through cave passages and conduits. Speleogens are irregular or distinctive shapes of carbonate rock etched from bedrock by dripping or running water. Speleogens can form where bedrock is not uniform in chemical composition. Consequently, the less soluble rock dissolves slower than adjacent more soluble rock through time. The less soluble rock tends to stand in relief and projects from walls and ceilings of caves.
Away from their entrances, caves usually provide a relatively constant temperature and humidity over a long period of time. Thus, caves provide an ideal environment for chemical deposition of minerals. As water laden with dissolved carbonate seeps into the air-filled cave passage, it may lose excess carbon dioxide to the cave atmosphere, or the water itself may evaporate, causing the dripwater to precipitate secondary carbonate or other minerals from solution, creating cave formations or speleothems including cone-shaped stalactites , stalagmites , flowstone or rimstone, or other interesting shapes. Caves in karst areas often have stalactites (icicle-like masses of chemical limestone) that hang from cave ceilings and stout stalagmites protruding from the cave floor. Stalactites and stalagmites can be a few inches to several feet long. Sometimes the drip water will flow down the walls and over the cave floor creating flowstone or rimstone deposits. Where drip water seeps from a joint and then drips over the edges of ledges, deposits of great complexity known as draperies are formed. The color of dripstones and flowstones comes from organic and/or iron oxide compounds brought in from the surface, giving the speleothems an orange brown color or from the presence of oxides and hydroxides of iron and manganese which give the speleothems a deep brown or black color.
What Lives Underground?
Some scientists are interested in cave ecology and how cave animals interact with cave microclimates. Animals found in caves include everything from surface dwelling animals like raccoons that occasionally use the cave, to animals that have adapted exclusively to life in the cave (troglobites) . Troglobites cannot survive outside caves. These may include such diverse animals as eyeless fish and crayfish, cave beetles, flatworms, and other unusual types of insects. Many of these animals have lost body pigmentation and are white or transparent in color. Although the cave environment appears to be stable, change can and does occur. The temperature of the cave varies due to air movement near the entrances and the temperature of water entering the cave. In reality, some caves have their own weather systems which create wind due to temperature and pressure differences between the entrance and interior passageways.
Many animals, such as bats, cave crickets, and pack rats, regularly visit, raise their young, or hibernate in caves. These animals are called trogloxenes . Caves may support large numbers of different types of bats. Bats may be among the most beneficial animals to people and the ecosystem as insect-eaters and plant pollinators. The little brown bat can eat 600 mosquitoes in an hour thus performing the work of a “natural insecticide,” helping control crop pests and other insects. The Mammoth Cave-Flint Ridge System in Kentucky, which is the most extensive cave system in the world, has a biodiversity of 43 mammals, 15 reptiles, 19 amphibians and 3 fish. In 1981, the United Nations designated Mammoth Cave National Park as a World Heritage Site. Follow this link for an excellent summary of the Mammoth Cave area and other caves found in the U. S. National Park System.
In 1988 the United States passed the Federal Cave Resource Protection Act which preserves and protects all significant caves found on federal land for future generations of Americans.
What’s in it for Me?
Knowing where karst features are located could help city and town planners, as well as individual landowners, to make decisions on where to build houses and other structures. This information could save cities thousand of dollars in repairs to buildings that are built on unstable karst terrain.
Karst springs supply drinking water to millions of people. Knowledge of karst terrain and the movement of water in underground drainage systems is important for maintaining good quality and safe drinking water. Pollution of ground water is a major problem in karst terrain.
Caves provide a venue for recreation. Although most of the caves located in National Parks are protected, there are over 200 commercial show caves nationwide which are open to the public. Recreational caving has become a popular hobby. The National Speleological Society has about 20,000 active affiliates nationwide.
Deposits preserved in caves can tell geologists about past climates. Fossils and artifacts found in caves help geologists and archaeologists unravel the prehistory of an area.
Caves support a unique community of bacteria, fungi and animals not seen on the surface of the Earth.
Questions
- Why is there often a wind at the mouth of a cave?
- Do large caves form in dry environments above the water table?
- Do dripstone features such as stalactites and stalagmites form in caves that are below or above the water table? Why or why not?
- Is the water table always level?
- Should a person explore a cave alone?
- Should a person build a house near a sinkhole?
- Should a person collect stalactites and stalagmites?
- Should a person collect cave-dwelling animals?
Contributors and Attributions
- Karst Topography - Teacher's Guide and Paper Model. Authored by : Tau Rho Alpha, John P. Galloway, and John C. Tinsley. Provided by : USGS. Located at : http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/cave/karst.html . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


6.4: Circular Permutations and Permutations with Similar Elements
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Learning Objectives
In this section you will learn to
- Count the number of possible permutations of items arranged in a circle
- Count the number of possible permutations when there are repeated items
In this section we will address the following two problems.
- In how many different ways can five people be seated in a circle?
- In how many different ways can the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI be arranged?
The first problem comes under the category of Circular Permutations, and the second under Permutations with Similar Elements.
Circular Permutations
Suppose we have three people named A, B, and C. We have already determined that they can be seated in a straight line in 3! or 6 ways. Our next problem is to see how many ways these people can be seated in a circle. We draw a diagram.
It happens that there are only two ways we can seat three people in a circle, relative to each other’s positions. This kind of permutation is called a circular permutation. In such cases, no matter where the first person sits, the permutation is not affected. Each person can shift as many places as they like, and the permutation will not be changed. We are interested in the position of each person in relation to the others. Imagine the people on a merry-go-round; the rotation of the permutation does not generate a new permutation. So in circular permutations, the first person is considered a place holder, and where he sits does not matter.
Definition: Circular Permutations
The number of permutations of \(n\) elements in a circle is \((n-1)!\)
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
In how many different ways can five people be seated at a circular table?
Solution
We have already determined that the first person is just a place holder. Therefore, there is only one choice for the first spot. We have
| 1 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
So the answer is 24.
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
In how many ways can four couples be seated at a round table if the men and women want to sit alternately?
Solution
We again emphasize that the first person can sit anywhere without affecting the permutation.
So there is only one choice for the first spot. Suppose a man sat down first. The chair next to it must belong to a woman, and there are 4 choices. The next chair belongs to a man, so there are three choices and so on. We list the choices below.
| 1 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
So the answer is 144.
PERMUTATIONS WITH SIMILAR ELEMENTS
Let us determine the number of distinguishable permutations of the letters ELEMENT.
Suppose we make all the letters different by labeling the letters as follows.
\[E_1LE_2ME_3NT \nonumber \]
Since all the letters are now different, there are 7! different permutations.
Let us now look at one such permutation, say
\[LE_1ME_2NE_3T \nonumber \]
Suppose we form new permutations from this arrangement by only moving the E's. Clearly, there are 3! or 6 such arrangements. We list them below.
\begin{aligned} &\mathrm{LE}_{1} \mathrm{ME}_{2} \mathrm{NE}_{3} \\
&\mathrm{LE}_{1} \mathrm{ME}_{3} \mathrm{NE}_{2} \\
&\mathrm{LE}_{2} \mathrm{ME}_{1} \mathrm{NE}_{3} \mathrm{T} \\
&\mathrm{LE}_{2} \mathrm{ME}_{3} \mathrm{NE}_{1} \mathrm{T} \\
&\mathrm{LE}_{3} \mathrm{ME}_{2} \mathrm{NE}_{1} \mathrm{T} \\
& \mathrm{LE}_{3} \mathrm{ME}_{I} \mathrm{NE}_{2} \mathrm{T} \end{aligned}
Because the E's are not different, there is only one arrangement LEMENET and not six. This is true for every permutation.
Let us suppose there are n different permutations of the letters ELEMENT.
Then there are \(n \cdot 3!\) permutations of the letters \(E_1LE_2ME_3NT\).
But we know there are 7! permutations of the letters \(E_1LE_2ME_3NT\).
Therefore, \(n \cdot 3! = 7!\)
Or \(n = \frac{7!}{3!}\).
This gives us the method we are looking for.
Definition: Permutations with Similar Elements
The number of permutations of n elements taken \(n\) at a time, with \(r_1\) elements of one kind, \(r_2\) elements of another kind, and so on, is
\[\frac{n !}{r_{1} ! r_{2} ! \ldots r_{k} !} \nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Find the number of different permutations of the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI.
Solution
The word MISSISSIPPI has 11 letters. If the letters were all different there would have been 11! different permutations. But MISSISSIPPI has 4 S's, 4 I's, and 2 P's that are alike.
So the answer is \(\frac{11!}{4!4!2!} = 34,650\).
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\)
If a coin is tossed six times, how many different outcomes consisting of 4 heads and 2 tails are there?
Solution
Again, we have permutations with similar elements.
We are looking for permutations for the letters HHHHTT.
The answer is \(\frac{6!}{4!2!} = 15\).
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\)
In how many different ways can 4 nickels, 3 dimes, and 2 quarters be arranged in a row?
Solution
Assuming that all nickels are similar, all dimes are similar, and all quarters are similar, we have permutations with similar elements. Therefore, the answer is
\[\frac{9 !}{4 ! 3 ! 2 !}=1260 \nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{6}\)
A stock broker wants to assign 20 new clients equally to 4 of its salespeople. In how many different ways can this be done?
Solution
This means that each sales person gets 5 clients. The problem can be thought of as an ordered partitions problem. In that case, using the formula we get
\[\frac{20 !}{5 ! 5 ! 5 ! 5 !}=11,732,745,024 \nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{7}\)
A shopping mall has a straight row of 5 flagpoles at its main entrance plaza. It has 3 identical green flags and 2 identical yellow flags. How many distinct arrangements of flags on the flagpoles are possible?
Solution
The problem can be thought of as distinct permutations of the letters GGGYY; that is arrangements of 5 letters, where 3 letters are similar, and the remaining 2 letters are similar:
\[ \frac{5 !}{3 ! 2 !} = 10 \nonumber \]
Just to provide a little more insight into the solution, we list all 10 distinct permutations:
GGGYY, GGYGY, GGYYG, GYGGY, GYGYG, GYYGG, YGGGY, YGGYG, YGYGY, YYGGG
We summarize.
Summary
1. Circular Permutations
The number of permutations of n elements in a circle is
\[(n -1)! \nonumber \]
2. Permutations with Similar Elements
The number of permutations of n elements taken n at a time, with \(r_1\) elements of one kind, \(r_2\) elements of another kind, and so on, such that \(\mathrm{n}=\mathrm{r}_{1}+\mathrm{r}_{2}+\ldots+\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{k}}\) is
\[\frac{n !}{r_{1} ! r_{2} ! \dots r_{k} !} \nonumber \]
This is also referred to as ordered partitions .


18.6: Italy in the Gothic Period
Italian Painting: 1200–1400
In the early Renaissance, painters began to embrace naturalistic styles, creating images with attention to form and space.
Identify the prominent artists and styles in Italy during the Early Renaissance
Key Points
- The Florentine School of Painting is characterized by the naturalism in painting in Florence that started to emerge in the 13th century.
- The period between 1200 and 1400 in Italy provides an important bridge in Art History between the Medieval period and Byzantine and Gothic styles , and the Early Modern period and Renaissance styles.
- Painters began to embrace the more naturalistic styles. Harkening back to classical figures, they created images portraying strong emotion and that paid attention to relationships between figures. Their painting expressed a type of realism not present in Byzantine styles.
Key Terms
- tempera : A method of painting where the artist mixes pigment with water and a binder, usually egg.
- Renaissance : The 14th century revival of classical art, architecture, literature, and learning that originated in Italy and spread throughout Europe over the following two centuries.
The Florentine School of Painting is characterized by the naturalism in art that started to emerge in Florence in the 13th century. This set the stage for what would become the great period of Florentine art in later centuries that would include the work of great artists such as Michelangelo, Fra Angelico, Botticelli, Donatello, and Lippi.
However, art in Florence and northern Italy during the period between 1200 and 1400 was still in transition; it was a bridge in Art History between the Medieval period and Byzantine and Gothic styles, and the Early Modern period and Renaissance styles. Sometimes referred to as the proto-Renaissance period, art and architecture in northern Italy provided important hints at the trends that would take hold over the next centuries in the rest of Europe.
City states and duchies such as Pisa, Milan, Lucca, and Florence were the main homes of these developments. In spite of the many challenges during the period, such as the ongoing ravages of the Black Plague, these city states experienced periods of politically stability and economic growth, which provided a good foundation for new experimentation in art.
In Florence, leading families prospered under the economic growth promoted through trade. Each of these leading families vied for power, but also for cultural prominence, and became great patrons of the arts (the Medici family being the prime example).
At the same time, there were great changes occurring in art both in terms of styles and philosophies. One important change was a focus on the individual in religious practices, which also translated into a greater naturalistic and humanist focus in art.
Florence
Painters in this city wholeheartedly embraced naturalist styles. Harkening back to classical figures, they created images with attention to portraying strong emotions and relationships between figures—painting that expressed a type of realism not present in Byzantine styles.
One painter who demonstrated the shift that was occurring in Florentine painting during this time is Cimabue (c.1240-1302). In his Maesta the viewer may observe elements of both the earlier Byzantine style of painting, as well as the emerging Renaissance style. The work retains the gold background that was familiar in Byzantine icons , and his figures are rendered in a Byzantine style. However, Cimabue made efforts to create space in this work, which would become an important aspect in Renaissance art. His angels surrounding the Virgin and Child overlap one another to indicate space and Cimabue paid great attention to the Virgin’s throne to create a realistic depiction of space as well.
Artists were able to work in Florence at least in part due to the influential art guilds , including the painters’ guild Arte dei Medici e Spezeiali. These guilds also became important patrons of the arts, and took over the maintenance and improvements of religious buildings.
Siena
The Sienese School of painting was more conservative than painting in Florence, but nonetheless important, flourishing between the 1200s and 1400s. Some of the important painters from this period included Duccio and his pupils Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Simone Martini, and Matteo di Giovanni.
Duccio di Buoninsegna is one of the best known Siena painters of the time. His work was often ornate with the use of gold leaf and jewels, demonstrating how Siena was focused on the physical materiality of work. His work in egg tempera also used brighter colors, rounded out features in faces and hands, and played with light and dark colors to highlight the figures under the drapery creating natural form , which was very unlike Byzantine figures but important to emerging Renaissance artists.
Duccio’s work was considered quite emotional, with a renewed focus on storytelling through the interactions of figures in the images and the selection of strong interpretations of biblical stories. The altarpiece Maestà (1308–1310) is one of his great works. Composed of multiple paintings and commissioned by the city of Sienna, the piece depicts the life of the Virgin Mary and Christ. The Virgin’s knee juts out toward the viewer as Duccio has created a realistic sense of form–an essential element of the emerging Renaissance style. While his work retains the gold background and gold halos so important in Byzantine art (and to Sienese patrons), this art acts as a bridge between the late Medieval era and Early Renaissance.
Italian Painting: Giotto
Giotto was one of the most revered painters of his time and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods.
Describe Giotto’s use of naturalism, storytelling, and perspective in his work
Key Points
- Giotto di Bondone was born during the late 1200s in the Florence region of Italy. He would go on to become one of the most revered painters of his time and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods.
- The Arena Chapel frescoes in Padua, which depict scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary and Jesus, are some of Giotto’s best known masterpieces.
- Scholars debate which works should be attributed to Giotto and which works should be attributed to his assistants or other artists working in his style .
- Giotto’s distinct contribution to the history of art was a return to a style that directly references the natural world; his paintings aimed to capture the realism of the human form .
Key Terms
- fresco : The technique of applying pigment, mixed with water, to wet plaster. As the pigment and plaster dry they fuse together and the painting physically becomes a part of the wall.
Giotto di Bondone was born during the late 1200s in the Florence region of Italy. He would go on to become one of the most revered painters of his time, and an important bridge between the medieval and renaissance periods.
The Arena Chapel frescoes were commissioned by the patron Enrico Scrovegni and depict scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary and Jesus. They are Giotto’s best known masterpieces.
Scholars debate over which works should be attributed to Giotto and which works should be attributed to assistants or other artists. For example, Giotto appears to have apprenticed with the Florentine painter Cimabue in Rome and may have been responsible for portions of the Chapel at Assisi. However, there is no documentation to confirm his work in Assisi.
Giotto’s distinct contribution to the history of art was a return to a style that directly references the natural world, a style that had not been emphasized by Medieval or Byzantine painters. While Medieval and Byzantine styles favored flat, elongated figures and a lack of natural perspective Giotto returned painting to a style that aimed to capture the naturalism of the human form.
Another strength of Giotto’s work was his storytelling ability. He was skilled at selecting strong interpretations of Biblical stories and at drawing viewers to the most visually and spiritually rich aspects of the story. This focus on relationships between figures, as well as a renewed interest in perspective and life drawing, are some of the aspects that would become prominent in Renaissance painting.
Italian Architecture 1200-1400
The Gothic style was the leading architectural style in Italy during this time period. However, Italian architects interpreted Gothic architecture differently than they did in France, resulting in a few key regional differences.
Discuss the architecture of Florence, Italy, during the Middle Ages and the architecture of the Florence Cathedral
Key Points
- While the French Gothic style gained popularity in many parts of Europe, the Gothic style was interpreted differently in Italy.
- Gothic buildings in cities such as Florence lack the stained glass that characterizes French Gothic structures and as a whole they lack the emphasized verticality of French Gothic Cathedrals .
- The Florence Cathedral is an example of the Gothic style in Italy.
Key Terms
- lancet : A tall, narrow archway with a pointed arch at its top.
- flying buttress : A buttress that stands apart from the structure that it supports, and is connected to it by an arch (flyer).
Florence: Architecture and Metalwork
Gothic architecture was developed in France and was characterized by lancet , or pointed, archways used for both windows and doorways. These allowed for both thinner walls and larger windows. The stained glass windows that seemed to replace walls altogether are the hallmark of French Gothic architecture. Other characteristics of the Gothic style include the increased use of flying buttresses to support walls, and a shift towards more slender and ornate columns , and vaulted ceilings.
While the French Gothic style gained popularity in many parts of Europe, the Gothic style was interpreted differently in Italy. Gothic buildings in cities such as Florence lack the stained glass that characterizes French Gothic structures and as a whole they lack the emphasized verticality of French Gothic Cathedrals.
Florence Cathedral
The Florence Cathedral is a great example of the Gothic style in Italy. Begun in 1296, the Cathedral is built in the Gothic style as Renaissance architecture had yet to be developed.
As the exterior view of the Cathedral demonstrates, Italian Gothic structures did not incorporate the stained glass windows, which had become so essential to French Gothic structures. The interior of the Cathedral, including the groin vaults and pointed arches , demonstrates the Gothic elements of its architecture quite clearly.
- Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Cimabue_-_MaestC3A0_di_Santa_Trinita_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cimabue_-_Maest%C3%A0_di_Santa_Trinita_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
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- Florentine School. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Florentine_School. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Albert Van Helden, Florence and Tuscany. September 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m11936/latest/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Renaissance. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Renaissance. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- Cappella degli Scrovegni. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cappella_degli_Scrovegni. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Giotto. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Giotto. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Byzantine art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- fresco. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fresco. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Florence_Duomo_from_Michelangelo_hill.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Duomo_Firenze_Apr_2008.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedral. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Il Caparra. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : it.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Caparra. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- History of Florence. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Florence%23Middle_ages. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Italian Gothic architecture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Gothic_architecture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- lancet. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/lancet. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- flying buttress. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/flying_buttress. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


7.7: Notes
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- Petr Szczepanik
- University of California Press
This chapter is based on a long-term research project focusing on the history of state-socialist and postsocialist production systems and production cultures in Prague and East-Central Europe, supported by the Czech Science Foundation (grant nr. P409/10/1361) and by the Fulbright Scholar Program. It is also based on data generated by the EU-funded FIND Project, which uses student internships in production companies to combine job shadowing with ethnographic research of production cultures (see www.projectfind.cz). The author would like to thank Richard Nowell for his editing assistance.
1 The interviews were conducted in two phases: in 2009 and 2010 in Prague and Los Angeles, and in 2013 and 2014 in Brno, Prague, and Budapest. The questions solicited responses about the involvement of specific personnel in international productions and how working on these projects affects career trajectories. The interview subjects were: Ludmila Claussová (film commissioner, Prague); Radomír Dočekal (Barrandov studio’s former president, Prague); Petr Forejt (sound recordist, Prague), Daniel Frisch (production manager, head of a production-service firm, Prague/Los Angeles), Thomas Hammel (producer, executive producer, Los Angeles); Michael Hausman (executive producer, first assistant director, New York); Tom Karnowski (production manager, producer, Los Angeles), Aleš Komárek (production manager, a head of a production-service firm, Prague); Tomáš Krejčí (head of a production-service firm, Prague/Los Angeles); Cathy Meils (former Variety correspondent in Prague); David Minkowski (production manager, head of a production-service firm, Prague/Los Angeles); Ondřej Nekvasil (production designer, art director, Prague); Steven North (producer, executive producer, Los Angeles); Rusty Lemorande (producer, Los Angeles); Cathy Schulman (producer, Los Angeles); Steven Lane (producer, Los Angeles); William Stuart (Barrandov Studios representative in Los Angeles); Jaromír Švarc (art director, Prague); Michelle Weller (former production manager in Prague, currently out of film business in Texas); Tomáš Hrubý (producer, Prague); Gábor Krigler (head of development, HBO, Budapest); Viktória Petrányi (producer, head of a production-service firm, Budapest); Pavel Strnad (independent producer, Prague); Petr Bílek (head of a production-service firm, Prague); Viktor Tauš (director, Prague).
2 From mid 2012 to mid 2014, the EU-funded FIND Project (www.projectfind.cz) organized over one hundred student internships. As assistants for international film and television productions, interns conducted participant observations and kept field diaries.
3 See Toby Miller, Nitin Govil, John McMurria, Richard Maxwell, and Ting Wang, Global Hollywood 2 (London: British Film Institute, 2008).
4 See Ben Goldsmith and Tom O’Regan, The Film Studio: Film Production in the Global Economy (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).
5 Neil M. Coe, Peter Dicken, and Martin Hess, “Global Production Networks: Realizing the Potential,” Journal of Economic Geography 8 (2008): 271–295. For examples of applying GPN theory to global media industries, see Neil M. Coe and Jennifer Johns, “Beyond Production Clusters: Towards a Critical Political Economy of Networks in the Film and Television Industries,” in The Cultural Industries and the Production of Culture , ed. Dominic Power and Allen J. Scott (London: Routledge, 2004), 188–204; Hyejin Yoon and Edward J. Malecki, “Cartoon Planet: Worlds of Production and Global Production Networks in the Animation Industry,” Industrial and Corporate Change 19.1 (2010): 239–271; Terry Flew, Understanding Global Media (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
6 Dieter Ernst and Linsu Kim, “Global Production Networks, Knowledge Diffusion, and Local Capability Formation,” Research Policy 31.8–9 (2002): 1417–1429.
7 See Candace Jones, “Careers in Project Networks: The Case of the Film Industry,” in Boundaryless Career: A New Employment Principle for a New Organizational Era , ed. Michael Bernard Arthur and Denise M. Rousseau (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 58–75.
8 Anders Malmberg and Peter Maskell, “Localized Learning Revisited,” Growth and Change 37.1 (March 2006): 1–18.
9 This claim is based on information gleaned from files at Barrandov Studios archive, the National Film Archive in Prague, a register of secret police agents, and interviews with current production managers.
10 Jonathan Kandell, “Americans in Prague: A Second Wave of Expatriates Is Now Playing a Vital Role in the Renaissance of the Czech Capital,” Smithsonian Magazine , August 2007, www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/americans-in-prague-160121860/?no-ist=&story=fullstory&page=1.
11 Ibid.
12 Daniel Rosenthal, “Czech Out Hollywood’s New Euro Options,” Weekly Variety , March 9, 1998.
13 See Olsberg SPI, “Economic Impact Study of the Film Industry in the Czech Republic” (London, 2006).
14 “The Hungarian Tax Credit System and the 20% Rebate Scheme,” Studies in Eastern European Cinema 1.1 (2010): 127–130.
15 See government-sponsored reports on audiovisual industry: Olsberg SPI, “Economic Impact Study of the Film Industry in the Czech Republic”; “Strategie konkurenceschopnosti českého filmového průmyslu 2011–2016” (MK ČR, 2010).
16 Will Tizard, “Czech Republic Sees Jump in Foreign Production Spending as Incentives Grow,” Variety , July 9, 2014, http://variety.com/2014/film/news/cz...ked-1201259106 ; see also Goldsmith and O’Regan, The Film Studio .
17 Cathy Meils, “Czech Film Tax Incentives Shrink,” Filmneweurope.com , June 24, 2013, www.filmneweurope.com/news/czech/105714-czech-film-tax-incentives-shrink/menu-id-150.
18 Leo Barraclough, “Film and TV Production Heats Up in Budapest: Flowing Coin Attracts Hollywood Films,” Variety , May 16, 2013, http://variety.com/2013/film/interna...nbc-1200466459 .
19 Alexandra Zeevalkink, “Hungary Ups Film Tax Rebate to Attract More Foreign Productions,” KFTV.com , July 17, 2014, www.kftv.com/news/2014/07/17/hungary-ups-film-tax-rebate-to-attract-more-foreign-productions.
20 See “Barrandov Studios,” www.barrandov.cz/clanek/reference-zahranicni-film.
21 Based on interviews with Cathy Schulman, October 23, 2009; Tom Karnowski, December 4, 2009; Radomír Dočekal, June 5, 2009.
22 See Petr Szczepanik, “The State-Socialist Mode of Production and the Political History of Production Culture,” in Behind the Screen: Inside European Production Cultures , ed. P. Szczepanik and Patrick Vonderau (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 113–134.
23 Interview with Pavel Strnad, December 7, 2012.
24 Interview with David Minkowski, May 19, 2009.
25 Ibid.
26 Interview with Tom Karnowski, December 4, 2009.
27 Spillover effects are highlighted by reports on the potential effects of the Czech incentive program commissioned by the government. See, for example, an industry report, EEIP, “Hodnocení dopadů regulace (velká RIA) k části návrhu zákona o kinematografii vztahující se k úpravě pobídek filmovému průmyslu (fiskálním stimulům)” (Prague, 2009).
28 Project FIND student intern field diaries.
29 Interview with David Minkowski, May 19, 2009.
30 Petr Szczepanik, “Globalization through the Eyes of Runners: Student Interns as Ethnographers on Runaway Productions in Prague,” Media Industries Journal 1.1 (2013), www.mediaindustriesjournal.org/index.php/mij/article/view/23/67.
31 Q&As with producers Karla Stojáková (Axman), Ondřej Beránek (Punk Film), and Pavel Berčík (Evolution), 2012 and 2013.
32 See Gary R. Edgerton and Jeffrey P. Jones, The Essential HBO Reader (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008).
33 Antony Root, quoted in Gary Smitherman, “The HBO Treatment,” C21Media , June 19, 2012, www.c21media.net/the-hbo-treatment/.
34 Informal interview with Tomáš Hrubý, March 10, 2014.
35 Interview with Gábor Krigler, March 28, 2014.
36 Jones, “Careers in Project Networks.”
37 Helen Blair, “You’re Only as Good as Your Last Job: The Labour Process and Labour Market in the British Film Industry,” Work, Employment and Society 15.1 (2001): 149–169.
38 See Jones, “Careers in Project Networks.”
39 Minkowski, quoted in Kandell, “Americans in Prague.”
40 Interview with Petr Forejt, June 17, 2009.
41 Quoted in Tomáš Baldýnský, “Quentin za to může!” Reflex , February 17, 2006.
42 Interview with Ondřej Nekvasil, June 11, 2009.
43 Peter Maskell, Harald Bathelt, and Anders Malmberg, “Building Global Knowledge Pipelines: The Role of Temporary Clusters,” European Planning Studies 14.8 (2006): 997–1013.
44 See Martha M. Lauzen’s annual reports: “The Celluloid Ceiling,” http://womenintvfilm.sdsu.edu/files/...ing_Report.pdf .


21.3.6: Powers and Roots
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Learning Outcomes
- Raise a number to a power using technology.
- Take the square root of a number using technology.
- Apply the order of operations when there is root or a power.
It can be a challenge when we first try to use technology to raise a number to a power or take a square root of a number. In this section, we will go over some pointers on how to successfully take powers and roots of a number. We will also continue our practice with the order of operations, remembering that as long as there are no parentheses, exponents always come before all other operations. We will see that taking a power of a number comes up in probability and taking a root comes up in finding standard deviations.
Powers
Just about every calculator, computer, and smartphone can take powers of a number. We just need to remember that the symbol "^" is used to mean "to the power of". We also need to remember to use parentheses if we need to force other arithmetic to come before the exponentiation.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Evaluate: \(1.04^5\) and round to two decimal places.
Solution
This definitely calls for the use of technology. Most calculators, whether hand calculators or computer calculators, use the symbol "^" (shift 6 on the keyboard) for exponentiation. We type in:
\[1.04^5 = 1.2166529\nonumber \]
We are asked to round to two decimal places. Since the third decimal place is a 6 which is 5 or greater, we round up to get:
\[1.04^5\approx1.22\nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Evaluate: \(2.8^{5.3\times0.17}\) and round to two decimal places.
Solution
First note that on a computer we use "*" (shift 8) to represent multiplication. If we were to put in 2.8 ^ 5.3 * 0.17 into the calculator, we would get the wrong answer, since it will perform the exponentiation before the multiplication. Since the original question has the multiplication inside the exponent, we have to force the calculator to perform the multiplication first. We can ensure that multiplication occurs first by including parentheses:
\[2.8 ^{5.3 \times 0.17} = 2.52865\nonumber \]
Now round to decimal places to get:
\[2.8^{5.3\times0.17}\approx2.53\nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
If we want to find the probability that if we toss a six sided die five times that the first two rolls will each be a 1 or a 2 and the last three die rolls will be even, then the probability is:
\[\left(\frac{1}{3}\right)^2\:\times\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^3\nonumber \]
What is this probability rounded to three decimal places?
Solution
We find:
\[(1 / 3) ^ 2 (1 / 2) ^ 3 \approx 0.013888889\nonumber \]
Now round to three decimal places to get
\[\left(\frac{1}{3}\right)^2\:\times\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^3 \approx0.014\nonumber \]
Square Roots
Square roots come up often in statistics, especially when we are looking at standard deviations. We need to be able to use a calculator or computer to compute a square root of a number. There are two approaches that usually work. The first approach is to use the \(\sqrt{\:\:}\) symbol on the calculator if there is one. For a computer, using sqrt() usually works. For example if you put 10*sqrt(2) in the Google search bar, it will show you 14.1421356. A second way that works for pretty much any calculator, whether it is a hand held calculator or a computer calculator, is to realize that the square root of a number is the same thing as the number to the 1/2 power. In order to not have to wrap 1/2 in parentheses, it is easier to type in the number to the 0.5 power.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Evaluate \(\sqrt{42}\) and round your answer to two decimal places.
Solution
Depending on the technology you are using you will either enter the square root symbol and then the number 42 and then close the parentheses if they are presented and then hit enter. If you are using a computer, you can use sqrt(42). The third way that will work for both is to enter:
\[42^{0.5} \approx 6.4807407\nonumber \]
You must then round to two decimal places. Since 0 is less than 5, we round down to get:
\[\sqrt{42}\approx6.48\nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\)
The "z-score" is for the value of 28 for a sampling distribution with sample size 60 coming from a population with mean 28.3 and standard deviation 5 is defined by:
\[z=\frac{28-28.3}{\frac{5}{\sqrt{60}}}\nonumber \]
Find the z-score rounded to two decimal places.
Solution
We have to be careful about the order of operations when putting it into the calculator. We enter:
\[ (28 - 28.3)/(5 / 60 ^\wedge 0.5) = -0.464758\nonumber \]
Finally, we round to 2 decimal places. Since 4 is smaller than 5, we round down to get:
\[z=\frac{28-28.3}{\frac{5}{\sqrt{60}}}=-0.46\nonumber \]
Exercise
The standard error, which is an average of how far sample means are from the population mean is defined by:
\[\sigma_\bar x=\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{n}}\nonumber \]
where \(\sigma_\bar x\) is the standard error, \(\sigma \) is the standard deviation, and \(n\) is the sample size. Find the standard error if the population standard deviation, \(\sigma \), is 14 and the sample size, \(n\), is 11.


5.1.2: The African Worldview and Spirituality
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For many authors, a common African personality derives from a common African worldview .
According to Khoapa (1980), an African’s existential reality is one of collective being, they seek to understand the world through their intersection with all aspects of the world and other people. This worldview is holistic and humanistic, and it focuses on interdependence, collective survival, harmony, an important role for the aged, the oral tradition, continuity of life, and rhythm. In addition, there is a fundamental belief in a metaphysical connection between all that exists within the universe, through an all-pervasive energy or “ spirit ” that is the essence of all things (Chatterji, 1960; Grills, 2002; Grills & Ajei, 2002; Khoapa, 1980; Mwikamba, 2005; Myers, 1988; Obasi, 2002; Parham et al., 1999; Senghor, 1965, 1971; Sofola, 1973).
At the center of the African worldview is spirit, or life itself, a vital force that animates the universe and that imparts feeling to all things from God down to the smallest grain of sand. Although this spirit pervades all things, there is a distinct hierarchy among the things that make up the universe. At the top of the hierarchy is God, followed by the ancestors (including the founders of the tribes, aka the “god-like ones”) and the living. Then come the animals, plants, and minerals. Being in the center, humans hold a privileged position. As living beings, people are able to increase their being (using this term in the same context as in existentialism). The source of spirit, and the spiritness within each person, is divine, and transcends both the physical universe and time. Thus, it can connect us to any person, place, or thing. This is part of the basis for African veneration of their ancestors. In order for the ancestors to avoid becoming “completely dead,” they must devote themselves to strengthening the lives of the living. As a result, they can still participate in life. When a person recognizes that through spirit all things become one, and if they adhere to this realization, they lose all sense of individual ego/mind. Instead, they experience the harmony of collective identity and a sense of extended self that includes ancestors, those not yet born, all nature, and their entire community (Busia, 1972; Grills, 2002; Grills & Ajei, 2002; Jahn, 1972; Myers, 1988; Obasi, 2002; Parham, 2002; Parham et al., 1999; Senghor, 1965).
Based on the previous paragraph, it should be clear that religion and spirituality are very important to Africans. We share a biological connection with animals, and an inherent spiritual connection with plants and minerals, but our privileged position at the junction of spirit and nature allows us to participate in a spiritual life that separates us from the animals, plants, and minerals. This is how Africans believe they are able to increase their being. According to Khoapa (1980), we link the universe with God, we awaken it, we speak to it, listen to it, and try to create harmony. This leads to a profound connection with the rhythm of the universe. Senghor (1965) describes rhythm as the “architecture of being…the pure expression of the life-force.” Rhythm has become an important aspect of African life, particularly in art, music, and poetry (also see Busia, 1972; Chatterji, 1960; Jahn, 1972; Mwikamba, 2005; Senghor, 1971; Sofola, 1973).
African music, like sculpture, is rooted in the nourishing earth, it is laden with rhythm, sounds and noises of the earth. This does not mean that it is descriptive or impressionist. It expresses feelings. (pg. 86; Senghor, 1965)
As noted above, the transcendent aspect of spirit leads to connections between past, present, and things that have not yet happened. This has led to a distinct relationship to time, one that differs dramatically from the Western world. Africans believe there is a rhythmic, cyclical pattern to life set in place by God, and God knows what is right. This includes the seasons, the rising and setting of the sun, and stages of life (birth, adolescence, adulthood, old age, and death). Events in the past are typically referred to in terms of reference points, such as a marriage or a birth. As for the future, in most African languages there is no word for the distant future, and plans for the near future are once again typically made around events rather than a specific time on a clock. Accordingly, time is something to be shared with others, there isn’t really any such thing as wasting time. Tribal elders are respected for the wisdom they have accumulated over a lifetime, and the “living” dead are kept alive by the tribe’s oral historian (Jahn, 1972; Parham et al., 1999; Sofola, 1973; Tembo, 1980).
discussion question \(\PageIndex{1}\)
The African worldview focuses on the universe and all the people within it as an interconnected whole, and seeks harmony and rhythm. Do you see life in a holistic way, do you try to relate to others as if we are all part of one creation? Do you think the world would be a better place if everyone tried to relate to others in this way?


3.8: Using the Right Communication Channel
- Determine the appropriate communication channel for a specific type of message
Advances in technology have opened the door to a myriad of vehicles for communication in business today. In written business communication, the idea and purpose of the message is the most important, closely followed by how it is written, and then by what means is it routed. Harmonizing these three characteristics will determine how effectively the message is received.
Since we have already discussed how we write various digital messages, we will now focus on the third element—what electronic business communication channel should be utilized for a given message. Here are several criteria to keep in mind when determining which communication channel to use:
- Who is the audience?
- How important is the message?
- What is the level of confidentiality?
- How much interactivity is needed?
- How much information needs to be conveyed?
We always start our message creation with the audience in mind—for what we say, how we say it, and what communication technique we use. A quarterly corporate performance report is probably not texted by the CFO to all employees of a company. Sending a multimedia slide deck to request time off to your manager is likely overkill. It would would not be appropriate for someone in the HR department to use IM to contact management regarding the résumés of the candidates to be interviewed for the new VP of Marketing job. These are extreme examples, of course, but they all illustrate the same basic point.
Although the criteria above are listed as separate items, they need to be considered together when choosing appropriate communication channels. For example, if you need to get a quick question fired off to a member of your team on a joint project consider the following: First, the recipient is a teammate and you probably communicate frequently with them. Second, the message is a quick question that needs to arrive right away to keep the project on track. Third, the information is probably not top secret; and fourth, you need them to be able to get back to you ASAP with a response. By cycling through several of our listed criteria, we would arrive at the conclusion that an IM would be the best way to get the job done.
What about the case of a message that needs to be sent to your manager to inform her about a new development on an upcoming large business deal? First, since your audience is your manager, you would want to use proper, formal and complete language. Second, the message is important—it will probably be circulated to higher levels of management and will need to serve as a record of the status of the deal. Third, there may need to be a degree of confidentiality because of the nature of the information being discussed, especially if it is a public company. Finally, the message will probably not require a rich level of interactivity, as it is intended to inform a limited audience. For this example, an email would probably be the best communication channel.
Another scenario: Your team is the first to work together with a new distribution partner on an important large client. After you have spent months working out the kinks of an effective process between the teams in both companies, your manager informs you that another group in your company will begin to work with this new partner on another joint customer. You are asked to bring this new group up to speed on how to work with this new partner. Based on our criteria above, would we send the new group an IM, an electronic memo, an email, a report, or utilize a blog or wiki?
Think about the five criteria of considering the best channel to use: The audience, importance of the message, level of confidentiality, level of interactivity needed, and amount of information that needs to be conveyed. Write your thoughts below:
Now that you have taken some time to consider the scenario and write down your thoughts let’s examine the facts. The audience is an internal group, the information is important and confidential, no interactivity is really required, and there is probably a decent amount of documentation to be recorded. This communication would be best presented as a wiki residing in an internal intranet for broad access, but only by company personnel.
Contributors and Attributions
- Using the Right Communication Channel. Authored by : Robert Danielson. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution