African American history timeline
African American history timeline encyclopedia encyclopaedia article
The timeline below highlights milestones in the history of Black Americans, with links to related articles. Entries are grouped into eight broad periods: 2nd century ad–1789:…
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Introduction

The timeline below highlights milestones in the history of Black Americans, with links to related articles. Entries are grouped into eight broad periods:

2nd century ad–1789: Old World to New

1790–1863: The Enslavement of Africans

1864–1916: Reconstruction and the Start of the Great Migration

1917–37: The Jazz Age and the Harlem Renaissance

1938–59: The Birth of the Civil Rights Movement

1960–69: The Civil Rights Movement and Black Power

1970–89: Breaking New Barriers

1990–present: The Spirit of the Millennium and Beyond.

For a collection of links to more than 500 articles on African American history arranged by subject and alphabetically, see African American history at a glance.

2nd century ad–1789: Old World to New

2nd–3rd century ad

Aksum becomes the greatest market of northeastern Africa.

about 600

Ghana, the first of the great medieval western African trading empires, is established. Its people act as intermediaries between the Arab and Berber salt traders to the north and the producers of gold and ivory to the south.

about 1100

The Great Zimbabwe (in what would later be southeastern Zimbabwe) begins some 400 years as the heart of a great trading empire.

1230

Sundiata, a West African monarch, establishes the empire of Mali, which flourishes for two centuries and lasts for three.

1307

Mansa Musa takes the throne of the great Mali Empire.

mid-14th century

A loose alliance of seven African states is formed. Known as the Hausa states, they flourish until the 19th century, when they are conquered by the Fulani.

1441

The first enslaved Africans are transported to Portugal.

1464

Sonni ʿAli ascends the throne of the Songhai kingdom. By his death in 1492, the Songhai control a vast trading empire that lasts until the end of the 16th century.

about 1517

Black plantation slavery begins in the New World when Spaniards begin importing enslaved people from Africa to replace Native Americans. The Native Americans died from harsh working conditions and exposure to Old World diseases to which they had no immunity.

1565

The Spanish take enslaved people to St. Augustine, the first permanent settlement in what would later be the state of Florida.

1619

1619

A Dutch ship with 20 enslaved Africans aboard arrives at the English colony of Jamestown, Virginia.

1650

The Yoruba Oyo Empire begins growing powerful in what would later be southwestern Nigeria. The empire reaches its height in the first part of the 18th century.

about 1700

The Ashanti begin to supply enslaved Africans to British and Dutch traders on the southwestern coast of Africa (later southern Ghana). In exchange, they receive firearms, which they use to support their territorial expansion.

1739

The Stono Rebellion, one of the earliest slave revolts, occurs in Charleston in the Black-majority colony of South Carolina. The rebellion leads to the deaths of at least 20 whites and more than 40 Blacks.

1746

Poet and storyteller Lucy Terry, a enslaved teenager, composes the poem “Bars Fight,” the earliest existing poem by an African American. Passed along orally for more than 100 years, it first appears in print in 1855.

1760

Jupiter Hammon, an enslaved man from Connecticut, writes an autobiography often considered to be the first slave narrative.

1770

Crispus Attucks, who had formerly been enslaved, is killed by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre. He is one of the first people to die in the cause of American independence.

about 1772

Jean-Baptist-Point Du Sable, a Black pioneer trader, builds a fur-trading post on the Chicago River at Lake Michigan. Its success leads to the settlement that later becomes the city of Chicago.

1773

Phillis Wheatley, the first notable Black woman poet in the United States, publishes in England her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. Wheatley is acclaimed in Europe and America following publication of the work, which is the first book of African American literature.

1777

Vermont, not yet part of the United States, becomes the first colony to abolish slavery in its constitution.

1781

James Armistead (later James Lafayette), an enslaved man, spies on British forces in Virginia for the marquis de Lafayette during the American Revolution.

1789

Olaudah Equiano publishes his two-volume autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano; or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself. This pioneering slave narrative becomes highly popular.

1790–1863: The Enslavement of Africans

1790

Benjamin Banneker, mathematician and compiler of almanacs, is appointed by President George Washington to the District of Columbia Commission. For the commission, Banneker works on the survey of Washington, D.C.

1793

Congress passes the first Fugitive Slave Act, making it a crime to harbor a person who escaped slavery or to interfere with his or her arrest.

Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, a machine that makes it easier to process cotton. It is credited with establishing cotton as the most important crop in the American South. To supply the growing demands of cotton-mill owners, more enslaved Black people are imported to work the cotton fields. The cotton gin thereby helps to institutionalize slavery.

1799

Richard Allen becomes the first ordained Black minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church.

1800

An enslaved man named Gabriel plans the first major slave rebellion in U.S. history. He gathers about 1,000 armed enslaved people near Richmond, Virginia. Following the failed revolt, more than 25 enslaved people, including Gabriel, are hanged.

1816

The African Methodist Episcopal Church is formally organized. Richard Allen becomes its first bishop.

1817

The American Colonization Society is established to transport freeborn Blacks and Blacks freed from slavery to Africa. The society later founds a colony in Africa that becomes the Republic of Liberia in 1847.

1820

The Missouri Compromise provides for Missouri to be admitted to the Union as a slave state. Slavery will not be allowed in Maine and in the western territories north of Missouri’s southern border.

1822

Denmark Vesey, who was freed from slavery, plans the largest slave revolt in U.S. history, in Charleston, South Carolina. The rebellion is betrayed before the plan can be carried out. Vesey and 34 others are hanged.

1829

African American abolitionist David Walker publishes the pamphlet Appeal…to the Colored Citizens of the World…, calling for a slave revolt. Radical for the time, it is accepted by a small minority of abolitionists.

1831

William Lloyd Garrison, a white man, begins publishing the antislavery newspaper The Liberator. It calls for enslaved African Americans to be freed.

Nat Turner, a enslaved man in Virginia, leads the only effective, sustained slave rebellion in U.S. history. He is joined by as many as 75 fellow enslaved people, who kill about 60 white people. Some six weeks after the defeat of the rebellion, Turner is hanged.

1833

The American Anti-Slavery Society, the main activist arm of the abolitionist movement, is founded under the leadership of William Lloyd Garrison.

1839

Enslaved Africans revolt on the Spanish slave ship Amistad near the coast of Cuba. The rebels are arrested in waters near New York. Former U.S. president John Quincy Adams successfully defends them before the Supreme Court.

1840

The Liberty Party holds its first national convention in Albany, New York. In opposition to fellow abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, members believe in political action to further antislavery goals.

1843

Henry Highland Garnet, African American abolitionist and clergyman, makes a controversial speech at the national convention of free Blacks. He shocks his listeners by calling upon enslaved people to murder their masters.

1847

Joseph Jenkins Roberts, the son of free Blacks in Virginia, is elected the first president of Liberia.

Frederick Douglass, who was formerly enslaved, begins publishing The North Star, an antislavery newspaper.

1848

The Free-Soil Party, a minor but influential political party, nominates former U.S. president Martin Van Buren to head its ticket. The party is opposed to the extension of slavery into the western territories.

1850

Speaking on behalf of the abolitionist movement, Sojourner Truth, a Black evangelist and reformer, travels throughout the American Midwest. She draws large crowds.

Harriet Tubman returns to Maryland to guide members of her family to freedom via the Underground Railroad. Later helping many more enslaved people to escape, she comes to be known as the “Moses of her people.”

In an effort to maintain an even balance between free and slave states, the U.S. Congress passes a series of compromise measures. They include a new, stricter Fugitive Slave Act, which contributes to the spread of the abolitionist movement.

1853

American Episcopalian minister Alexander Crummell becomes a missionary and teacher in Liberia. He advocates a program of religious conversion and economic and social development.

William Wells Brown publishes Clotel, the first novel by an African American. Brown, who was formerly enslaved, is an abolitionist, a historian, and a physician as well as an author.

1854

Author Frances E.W. Harper’s most popular verse collection, Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects, is published. It contains the antislavery poem “Bury Me in a Free Land.”

1856

In the ongoing contest between proslavery and antislavery forces in Kansas, a mob sacks the town of Lawrence, a “hotbed of abolitionism.” In retaliation, white abolitionist John Brown leads a deadly raid on a proslavery settlement at Pottawatomie Creek.

1857

In its Dred Scott decision, the U.S. Supreme Court legalizes slavery in all the territories. The decision increases tensions between the North and the South and pushes the country toward civil war.

1859

Harriet E. Wilson writes a largely autobiographical novel about racism in the North before the American Civil War.

The U.S. Supreme Court, in Ableman v. Booth, upholds the Fugitive Slave Act of 1950. It overrules an act by a Wisconsin state court that declared the act unconstitutional.

about 1859

Martin R. Delany, physician and advocate of Black nationalism, leads a party to West Africa. He investigates the Niger Delta as a site for settlement of African Americans.

1860

After Abraham Lincoln wins the U.S. presidential election, South Carolina secedes from the Union in December. It is followed in January 1861 by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana, and in February by Texas. As battle lines are drawn, Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee also choose to secede.

1861

The American Civil War begins near Charleston, South Carolina, as the Confederates open fire on Fort Sumter.

Harriet Jacobs publishes Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, the first autobiography by a formerly enslaved African American woman.

about 1861

Pinckney B.S. Pinchback, a freeborn Black man, runs the Confederate blockade on the Mississippi River to reach New Orleans. There he recruits a company of Black volunteers for the Union, the Corps d’Afrique.

1862

Future U.S. congressman Robert Smalls and 12 other enslaved Black men seize control of a Confederate armed frigate in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. They turn the ship over to a Union naval squadron blockading the city.

The Homestead Act is passed to encourage western migration, providing an opportunity for Black Americans to own land on the frontier. Many Black people living in the South would move to the West to take advantage of the act after the American Civil War ended in 1865.

The second Confiscation Act is passed, stating that enslaved people of civilian and military Confederate officials “shall be forever free.” The act is enforceable only in areas of the South occupied by the Union Army.

1863

On January 1, President Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing the enslaved people of the Confederate states.

1864–1916: Reconstruction and the Start of the Great Migration

1864

Southern outrage at the North’s use of Black soldiers flares up. Confederate forces capture Fort Pillow, Tennessee, and massacre the Black Union troops within; some are burned or buried alive.

President Abraham Lincoln refuses to sign the Wade-Davis Bill, which requires greater assurances of loyalty to the Union from white citizens and governments in states that had seceded.

1865

The American Civil War ends on April 26, after the surrender of the Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and J.E. Johnston.

Congress establishes the Freedmen’s Bureau to help four million Black Americans in the transition from slavery to freedom.

about 1866

The states of the former Confederacy pass “Black code” laws to ensure that white supremacy continues, despite the Emancipation Proclamation and the Thirteenth Amendment.

1866

The U.S. Army forms Black cavalry and infantry regiments that serve in the West from 1867 to 1896. The units mainly fight American Indians on the frontier. The Indians nickname them “buffalo soldiers.”

Rioting whites kill 35 Black citizens of New Orleans, Louisiana, and wound more than 100 people, with the participation of local police. The riots lead to increased support for strong Reconstruction policies.

1867

Howard University, a predominantly Black university, is founded in Washington, D.C. It is named for General Oliver Otis Howard, head of the Freedmen’s Bureau.

1868

The Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution is ratified, granting citizenship and equal civil and legal rights to African Americans.

The South Carolina General Assembly consists of 85 Black and 70 white representatives. A product of Reconstruction, it is the first state legislature with a Black majority.

Elizabeth Keckley publishes her autobiography, Behind the Scenes; or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House. Keckley rose from slavery to become the dressmaker and confidante of First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln.

1870

Hiram R. Revels of Mississippi takes the former seat of Jefferson Davis in the U.S. Senate. Revels is the only African American in the U.S. Congress and the first elected to the Senate.

Joseph Hayne Rainey is the first African American elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. This congressman from South Carolina will enjoy the longest tenure of any African American representative during Reconstruction.

The Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, guaranteeing the right to vote regardless of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”

1877

Reconstruction ends as the last Federal troops are withdrawn from the South. Southern conservatives regain control of their state governments through fraud, violence, and intimidation.

1879

Author Joel Chandler Harris’s story “Tar-Baby” popularizes the sticky tar doll figure of Black American folktales. It draws on the African trickster tale.

1881

Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Alabama is founded on July 4. Booker T. Washington is the school’s first president.

Tennessee becomes the first state to enact a Jim Crow law. The law requires Blacks and whites to ride in separate railroad cars.

1883

Black inventor Jan Ernst Matzeliger patents his shoe-lasting machine that shapes the upper portions of shoes. His invention soon replaces handmade methods of production.

1887

Florida A&M University is founded as the State Normal (teacher-training) School for Colored Students.

Black journalist T. Thomas Fortune begins editing the New York Age. His well-known editorials defend the civil rights of African Americans and condemn racial discrimination.

1892

The offices of the Memphis Free Speech are destroyed following editorials by part-owner Ida B. Wells denouncing the lynching of three of her friends.

1895

At the Atlanta Exposition, educator Booker T. Washington delivers his “Atlanta Compromise” speech. He stresses the importance of vocational education for Blacks over social equality or political office.

1896

Mary Church Terrell becomes the first president of the National Association of Colored Women, working for educational and social reform and an end to racial discrimination.

In the Plessy v. Ferguson decision concerning racial segregation, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds the doctrine of “separate but equal.” It holds that laws that require Blacks and whites to use separate public facilities are constitutional as long as the facilities are reasonably equal.

Paul Laurence Dunbar, acclaimed as “the poet laureate of the Negro race,” publishes the poetry collection Lyrics of Lowly Life.

1899

Composer and pianist Scott Joplin publishes “Maple Leaf Rag.” It is one of the most important and popular musical compositions during the era of ragtime—precursor to jazz.

about 1900

Originally an enslaved people’s parody of white ballroom dances, the cakewalk becomes a wildly popular dance among fashionable whites as well as white minstrels working in blackface.

1901

Booker T. Washington dines with President Theodore Roosevelt at the White House. The dinner meeting is bitterly criticized by many whites, who view it as a marked departure from racial etiquette.

1903

W.E.B. Du Bois publishes The Souls of Black Folk. It declares that “the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color-line.”

In protest to the views of Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois suggests the concept of the “Talented Tenth”—a group of college-educated Black leaders responsible for elevating Blacks economically and culturally.

1905

The Niagara Movement is founded as a group of Black intellectuals from across the country meet near Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. They adopt resolutions demanding full equality in American life. W.E.B. Du Bois is the organization’s leader.

Madam C.J. Walker develops and markets a method for straightening curly hair. It leads to her becoming the first Black female millionaire in the United States.

1906

Atlanta Baptist College expands its curriculum and is renamed Morehouse College.

1908

In Springfield, Illinois, a major race riot occurs; the Black community is assaulted by several thousand white citizens, and two elderly Blacks are lynched.

1909

A group of whites shocked by the Springfield riot of 1908 merge with W.E.B. Du Bois’s Niagara Movement. Together, they form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

1910

The Crisis, a monthly magazine published by the NAACP, is founded. W.E.B. Du Bois edits the magazine for its first 24 years.

about 1910

Jazz begins to evolve in New Orleans, Louisiana.

1911

The organization later named the National Urban League is formed in New York City. Its mission is to help migrating African Americans find jobs and housing and adjust to urban life.

German-born American anthropologist Franz Boas publishes The Mind of Primitive Man, a series of lectures on culture and race. His work is used often in the 1920s by those opposed to U.S. immigration restrictions based on presumed racial differences.

1914

Marcus Garvey founds the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in his homeland of Jamaica. The organization aims to further racial pride and economic self-sufficiency and to establish a Black nation in Africa.

George Washington Carver of the Tuskegee Institute reveals his experiments concerning peanuts and sweet potatoes. He popularizes alternative crops and aids in the renewal of depleted land in the South.

1915

Historian Carter G. Woodson founds the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History. It is intended to assist in the accurate and proper study of African American history.

Boxer Jack Johnson, the first Black heavyweight champion of the world, loses the title in 26 rounds to Jess Willard, the last in a succession of “Great White Hopes.” Rumors claim that Johnson lost intentionally in the attempt to avoid legal difficulties.

A division of the National Baptist Convention yields the National Baptist Convention of America, the largest Black church in the United States.

1916

The period known as the Great Migration begins. Between 1916 and 1970 some six million African American Southerners migrate to urban centers in the North and the West.

1917–37: The Jazz Age and the Harlem Renaissance

1917

Hatred among whites toward African Americans newly employed in war industries leads to a race riot in East St. Louis, Illinois. Mobs of white people attack Black residents, stabbing, clubbing, and hanging them. Some 6,000 Black people are driven from their homes, and 40 Blacks and 8 whites are killed.

1918

James VanDerZee and his wife open the Guarantee Photo Studio in the Harlem district of New York City. The portraits he shoots later become a treasured chronicle of the Harlem Renaissance.

1919

During the Red Summer (meaning “bloody summer”), some 25 race riots erupt in cities across the United States. The most severe violence takes place on the South Side of Chicago. That riot leaves 23 Blacks and 15 whites dead, 537 people injured, and 1,000 Black families homeless.

A’Lelia Walker inherits the family business and estate upon the death of her mother, Madame C.J. Walker. In the 1920s she entertains the leading writers and artists of the Harlem Renaissance.

1920

Marcus Garvey, leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), addresses 25,000 Blacks at Madison Square Garden in New York City. He then presides over a parade of 50,000 through the streets of Harlem.

The Negro National League, an association of African American baseball teams, is established. It is the first of baseball’s Negro leagues.

1921

Shuffle Along, a musical by Eubie Blake and Noble Sissle, opens on Broadway. It is the first musical written and performed by African Americans.

1922

Louis Armstrong leaves New Orleans for Chicago, where he plays second trumpet in King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band. Armstrong’s work in the 1920s would revolutionize jazz.

Airplane pilot Bessie Coleman makes the first public flight by an African American woman. She would later refuse to perform at aerial shows before segregated audiences in the South.

1923

Charles Clinton Spaulding becomes president of the North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company. He builds it into the country’s largest Black-owned business.

Jazz pianist and arranger Fletcher Henderson becomes a bandleader. His famous band advances the careers of African American musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Coleman Hawkins, and Roy Eldridge.

Poet and novelist Jean Toomer publishes his masterpiece, the experimental novel Cane. It is often considered one of the greatest achievements of the Harlem Renaissance.

Blues singer Bessie Smith makes her first recording. She will eventually become known as “Empress of the Blues.”

1924

Spelman Seminary becomes Spelman College. The school began in Georgia in 1881 with two Boston women teaching 11 Black women in an Atlanta church basement.

At a dinner sponsored by Opportunity magazine, Black writers and white publishers mingle. The event is considered the formal beginning of the Harlem Renaissance.

1925

The New Negro, a collection of fiction, poetry, drama, and essays associated with the Harlem Renaissance, is edited by Alain Locke.

Singer and dancer Josephine Baker goes to Paris to dance in a revue. She becomes one of the most popular entertainers in France.

Countee Cullen, one of the finest poets of the Harlem Renaissance, publishes his first collection of poems, Color. He graduates from college later in the year.

The Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist hate group, stages a parade of 50,000 unmasked members in Washington, D.C. In the 1920s the Klan has more than 4 million members nationwide.

A. Philip Randolph, trade unionist and civil rights leader, founds the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, which becomes the first successful Black trade union.

At a historic literary awards banquet during the Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes earns first place in poetry. His winning poem, “The Weary Blues,” is read aloud by James Weldon Johnson.

about 1926

Pianist, composer, and self-proclaimed inventor of jazz, Jelly Roll Morton records several of his masterpieces. Among them are “Black Bottom Stomp” and “Dead Man Blues.”

1927

James Weldon Johnson publishes God’s Trombones, a book of poetry. It contains verse sermons in the style of traditional Southern Black preachers. The book is illustrated by Aaron Douglas.

Poet and playwright Angelina Weld Grimké publishes Caroling Dusk, an anthology of her poetry edited by Countee Cullen.

Painter Henry Ossawa Tanner becomes the first African American to be granted full membership in the National Academy of Design.

Singer and actor Ethel Waters makes her first appearance on Broadway in the all-Black revue Africana.

The all-Black professional basketball team known as the Harlem Globetrotters is established.

1928

Poet and novelist Claude McKay publishes Home to Harlem, the first novel by an African American to reach the best-seller lists.

1929

John Hope is chosen as president of Atlanta University, the first graduate school for African Americans. It later becomes Clark Atlanta University.

1931

Nine Black youths accused of raping two white women on a freight train go on trial for their lives in Scottsboro, Alabama. Northern liberal and radical groups champion the cause of the “Scottsboro Boys.”

Walter White becomes executive secretary of the NAACP. His main goal is to bring about the end of lynching. In the early 20th century, there were often more than 60 lynchings nationally each year. By the time of White’s death in 1955, lynchings would become a rarity.

1932

In Tuskegee, Alabama, the U.S. Public Health Service begins a 40-year study of the course of untreated syphilis in Black men. In this unethical medical experiment, treatment was intentionally withheld from the test subjects, even as some of them went blind and insane from the disease. More than 100 of the men ultimately died of syphilis.

Wallace Thurman, young literary rebel of the Harlem Renaissance, publishes his satiric novel Infants of the Spring.

1934

Wallace D. Fard, founder of the Nation of Islam movement, disappears. He is replaced by Elijah Muhammad.

1936

Track-and-field athlete Jesse Owens wins four gold medals in the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, Germany. His victories derail Adolf Hitler’s intended use of the games as a show of white supremacy.

about 1936

Delta blues musician Robert Johnson makes his legendary and influential recordings in Texas. They include “Me and the Devil Blues,” “Hellhound on My Trail,” and “Love in Vain.”

1937

Writer and folklorist Zora Neale Hurston publishes her second novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God. It is considered her finest book.

1938–59: The Birth of the Civil Rights Movement

1938

In a knockout in the first round of their rematch, heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis wreaks vengeance on Max Schmeling of Germany. Schmeling was the only boxer to have knocked out Louis in his prime.

about 1938

Jazz vocalist Billie Holiday makes several of her finest recordings with saxophonist Lester Young.

about 1939

Count Basie leads his legendary Kansas City jazz band. It includes saxophonist Lester Young, trumpeter Buck Clayton, bassist Walter Page, and drummer Jo Jones.

1939

The Daughters of the American Revolution refuse to allow singer Marian Anderson to rent Constitution Hall for a concert in Washington, D.C. Instead, she performs at the Lincoln Memorial before an audience of 75,000 people.

The NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund is organized to fight against laws allowing racial discrimination. Charles Hamilton Houston leads the effort to tap some of the country’s best legal talents in the fight for civil rights.

1940

Author Richard Wright publishes his masterpiece, Native Son. The stark, tragic novel immediately places Wright in the front ranks of contemporary American writers.

Benjamin Oliver Davis, Sr. becomes the first Black general in the U.S. Army.

about 1940

Painter Jacob Lawrence begins work on Migration of the Negro, a series of 60 paintings. The series depicts the journey of African Americans from the South to the cities of the North in the Great Migration.

Duke Ellington leads his greatest band. It includes bassist Jimmy Blanton, saxophonist Ben Webster, and trumpeter Cootie Williams.

1941

Following considerable protest, the U.S. War Department forms the first African American air force unit, the 99th Pursuit Squadron. Its servicemen become known as the Tuskegee Airmen. Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr., commands the squadron.

1942

Although the U.S. armed forces begin to accept blood donations from Blacks, the armed forces resolve to racially segregate the blood supply. As a result, Charles Richard Drew, developer and director of blood plasma programs during World War II, resigns.

James Farmer founds the interracial organization that becomes the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). Its direct-action tactics achieve national prominence during the Freedom Rides of 1961.

about 1942

Bebop (or bop) is born out of the musical experiments of jazz musicians in Harlem, including saxophonist Charlie Parker, trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, and pianist Thelonious Monk.

1943

Dancer Bill (“Bojangles”) Robinson appears with singer Lena Horne in the wartime all-Black musical film Stormy Weather.

1945

Ebony magazine is founded by John H. Johnson of Chicago. Modeled after Life but intended for the Black middle class, the magazine is an instant success.

Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., pastor of the Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem, is elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Democrat from Harlem (New York). He serves 11 successive terms.

about 1946

Saxophonist Charlie Parker produces many of the finest recordings of his career. Among them are Now’s the Time, Koko, Yardbird Suite, and Ornithology.

1947

Jackie Robinson joins the Brooklyn Dodgers, becoming the first African American baseball player in the major leagues during the modern era.

Historian John Hope Franklin gains international attention with the publication of From Slavery to Freedom, an enduring survey of African American history.

1948

Satchel Paige, legendary baseball pitcher of the Negro leagues, finally enters the majors after the “gentlemen’s agreement” prohibiting the signing of Black players is relaxed.

1949

Not satisfied with Billboard magazine’s label of “race records” for its Black music chart, Jerry Wexler, a white reporter at the magazine, introduces the designation “rhythm and blues.”

1950

Ralph Bunche is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work as United Nations (UN) mediator in the Arab-Israeli dispute in Palestine.

Gwendolyn Brooks receives the Pulitzer Prize for poetry for Annie Allen (1949), becoming the first African American writer to win the award.

After singer, actor, and activist Paul Robeson refuses to swear that he is not a communist, the U.S. State Department suspends his passport.

1952

Ralph Ellison publishes his masterpiece, the novel Invisible Man. It receives the National Book Award in 1953.

1954

On May 17 the U.S. Supreme Court rules unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that racial segregation in public schools violates the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

In the World Series against the Cleveland Indians, New York Giants outfielder Willie Mays makes “the catch.” The extraordinary over-the-shoulder catch remains one of the most talked-about plays in baseball history.

1955

Lynchings continue in the South with the brutal slaying of a 14-year-old Chicago youth, Emmett Till, in Money, Mississippi. Jet magazine publishes a picture of his mutilated corpse.

Rosa Parks, secretary of the Montgomery, Alabama, chapter of the NAACP, refuses to surrender her bus seat to a white person. Her action leads to the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955–56.

Opera diva Leontyne Price is triumphant in the title role of the National Broadcasting Company’s Tosca. She is the first African American to sing opera for television.

Singer, songwriter, and guitarist Chuck Berry travels from St. Louis, Missouri, to Chicago, Illinois. There he records Maybellene, an immediate sensation among teenagers. The hit helps shape the evolution of rock and roll.

1956

Clifford Brown, the most influential trumpeter of his generation, dies at age 25 in a car accident. Noted for his lyricism and grace of technique, Brown is a principal figure of the hard bop style of jazz.

Arthur Mitchell, future director of the Dance Theatre of Harlem, becomes the only Black dancer in the New York City Ballet. George Balanchine creates several roles especially for him.

Tennis player Althea Gibson becomes the first African American to win a major title—the Wimbledon doubles—as well as the French singles and doubles and the Italian singles.

1957

The Southern Christian Leadership Conference is established by the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., and others. It is formed to coordinate and assist local organizations working for the full equality of African Americans.

Arkansas governor Orval E. Faubus tries to block desegregation at Central High School in Little Rock, ordering the state military to prevent nine Black students from entering the school. President Dwight D. Eisenhower orders federal troops to escort the students to school.

Fullback Jim Brown begins his professional football career with the Cleveland Browns. He leads the National Football League in rushing for eight of his nine seasons.

1958

Boxer Sugar Ray Robinson, considered by many to be the greatest fighter in history, wins back the middleweight title for the last time. He defeats Carmen Basilio in a savage fight.

Alvin Ailey founds the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater. Composed primarily of African Americans, the dance company tours extensively both in the United States and abroad.

Mahalia Jackson, known as the “Queen of Gospel Song,” joins Duke Ellington in his gospel interlude Black, Brown, and Beige at the 1958 Newport Jazz Festival.

1959

Trumpeter Miles Davis records Kind of Blue, often considered his masterwork.

Singer Ray Charles records What’d I Say, which becomes his first million-seller. It exemplifies the emergence of soul music, combining rhythm and blues with gospel.

A Raisin in the Sun, by Lorraine Hansberry, becomes the first drama by a Black woman to be produced on Broadway. The 1961 film version features Sidney Poitier and receives a special award at the Cannes film festival in France.

Motown Record Corporation is founded in Detroit, Michigan, by Berry Gordy, Jr. The “Motown sound” dominates Black popular music through the 1960s. It also attracts a huge white crossover audience, becoming the “Sound of Young America.”

Baseball player Ernie Banks, one of the finest power hitters in the history of the game, is named the National League’s Most Valuable Player for a second season in a row.

Pioneer “free jazz” musician Ornette Coleman and his quartet play for the first time at New York’s Five Spot Café. The historic performance provokes strong reactions—both admiring and condemning—from the audience.

1960–69: The Civil Rights Movement and Black Power

1960

Jim Stewart and Estelle Axton, a white brother and sister, found Stax Records of Memphis, Tennessee. It comes to define the Southern soul music sound identified with artists such as Sam and Dave, Booker T. and the MG’s, and Otis Redding.

The sit-in movement is launched at Greensboro, North Carolina, when Black college students sit down at a local “whites only” lunch counter. When they are denied service, they politely but firmly refuse to leave. The sit-in is a tactic of nonviolent civil disobedience.

Inspired by the sit-in movement, jazz drummer Max Roach composes and records the historic Freedom Now Suite.

1961

CORE organizes Freedom Rides, in which Blacks and whites protest segregation by riding interstate buses together through the South. The Freedom Riders encounter overwhelming violence, particularly in Alabama, leading to federal intervention.

Whitney Young is appointed executive director of the National Urban League. He works to bridge the gap between white political and business leaders and poor Blacks.

1962

Wilt Chamberlain becomes the first basketball player to score more than 4,000 points in regular-season National Basketball Association games.

The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the University of Mississippi must admit its first African American student, James Meredith.

The New Yorker magazine publishes a long article by author James Baldwin on aspects of the civil rights struggle. The article becomes a best-seller in book form as The Fire Next Time.

1963

In Birmingham, Alabama, Police Commissioner Eugene (“Bull”) Connor uses water hoses and dogs against civil rights protesters, many of whom are children. This leads to increasing pressure on President John F. Kennedy to act.

Medgar Evers, Mississippi field secretary for the NAACP, is shot and killed in front of his home. The murder followed a historic broadcast on the subject of civil rights by President John F. Kennedy.

The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., writes “Letter from a Birmingham Jail.” It is addressed to eight clergymen who attacked his role in leading civil rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama. Widely reprinted, the letter soon becomes a classic of protest literature.

Sidney Poitier wins the Academy Award as best actor for his performance in Lilies of the Field. In 1967 he would star in two films concerning race relations, Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner and In the Heat of the Night.

The civil rights movement reaches a dramatic climax with a massive march on Washington, D.C. It is organized chiefly by Bayard Rustin. Among the themes of the march is a demand for Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act. In Washington an interracial audience of more than 200,000 hears Martin Luther King, Jr., deliver his famous “I Have a Dream” speech.

1964

Malcolm X leaves the Nation of Islam and forms his own religious organization. He makes the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, modifying his views on Black separatism upon his return to the U.S.

The play Dutchman by LeRoi Jones (later named Imamu Amiri Baraka) appears off-Broadway and wins critical acclaim. The play exposes the suppressed anger and hostility of American Blacks toward the dominant white culture.

The bodies of three murdered civil rights workers—two white, one Black—are found in Philadelphia, Mississippi.

President Lyndon Baines Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act into law. It gives federal law enforcement agencies the power to prevent racial discrimination in employment, voting, and the use of public facilities.

The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., is awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in Oslo, Norway.

Bob Gibson, pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals, begins an unprecedented streak of seven straight World Series wins.

Jazz saxophonist John Coltrane records his masterpiece, A Love Supreme.

The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified. It guarantees that citizens cannot be denied the right to vote in presidential or congressional elections because of failure to pay a tax. Such poll taxes were used in the South to deny Blacks the right to vote.

1965

The Voting Rights Act is passed following the Selma-to-Montgomery March in Alabama. The civil rights protest march captured national attention when the peaceful marchers were beaten mercilessly by state troopers at the Edmund Pettus Bridge.

The Watts area of Los Angeles explodes into violence following the arrest of a young male motorist charged with reckless driving. At the riot’s end, 34 people are dead, 1,032 injured, and 3,952 arrested.

1966

The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense is founded in Oakland, California, by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale. The group’s original purpose is to protect residents from acts of police brutality.

Charting a new course for the civil rights movement, Stokely Carmichael, chairman of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, uses the phrase Black power at a rally.

Basketball player Bill Russell, one of the greatest defensive centers in the history of the sport, becomes the coach of the Boston Celtics. He is the first Black coach of a major professional sports team in the United States.

Edward Brooke of Massachusetts becomes the first African American to be popularly elected to the U.S. Senate.

The African American holiday of Kwanzaa, patterned after various African harvest festivals, is created by Maulana Karenga, a Black-studies professor at California State University at Long Beach.

1967

Civil rights activist Julian Bond is sworn in as a representative of the Georgia state legislature. Although properly elected, he was denied his seat for opposing U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. In December 1966 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that his exclusion was unconstitutional.

Singer Aretha Franklin, the “Queen of Soul,” releases a series of hits including “I Never Loved a Man” and “Baby, I Love You.” Her hit “Respect ” becomes something of an anthem for the civil rights movement.

At the height of the Vietnam War, heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali refuses to join the armed forces because of his religious beliefs. Convicted of breaking the law, Ali is barred from the ring and stripped of his title.

Blues and rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix makes his spectacular debut at the Monterey International Pop Festival.

Thurgood Marshall becomes the first African American U.S. Supreme Court justice. As a lawyer, he argued the case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

Carl Stokes is elected mayor of Cleveland, Ohio. He becomes the first African American mayor of a major U.S. city.

1968

Eldridge Cleaver, the Black Panther Party’s minister of information, publishes the autobiographical book Soul on Ice.

On April 4 the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. Over the next week riots break out in some 125 cities around the country. Ralph Abernathy succeeds him as president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, carrying out the group’s Poor People’s Campaign.

Bob Beamon sets the world record in the long jump at the 1968 Olympic Games in Mexico City, surpassing the previous mark by 21 inches (53 centimeters). His record would stand until 1991, when it was broken by Mike Powell.

After winning an Olympic gold medal, sprinter Tommie Smith and teammate John Carlos give a Black-power salute during the awards ceremony. The U.S. Olympic Committee suspends them.

Actor James Earl Jones wins acclaim and a Tony Award for his portrayal of legendary African American boxer Jack Johnson in the play The Great White Hope. Jones later stars in the film version (1970).

Shirley Chisholm becomes the first Black American woman to be elected to the U.S. Congress, defeating civil rights leader James Farmer.

1969

Black Panther Party cofounder Bobby Seale is tried for conspiracy to incite rioting at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago the previous year. After protesting that he was being denied his right to counsel during trial, the judge orders him to be bound and gagged.

1970–89: Breaking New Barriers

1971

Author Ernest J. Gaines publishes The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman, a fictional remembrance by an elderly Black woman of the years between Reconstruction and the civil rights movement.

In Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education the Supreme Court rules that busing programs aimed to speed up the racial integration of public schools in the United States are constitutional.

1972

Writer Ishmael Reed publishes the novel Mumbo Jumbo. Its irreverent tone successfully revives the tradition of the African American satiric novel.

Shirley Chisholm, a member of the House of Representatives from New York, is the first African American woman to make a serious bid for the U.S. presidency.

1973

Gladys Knight and the Pips produce the million-selling album Imagination, winning two Grammy Awards.

1974

Baseball player Hank Aaron hits his 715th home run, breaking Babe Ruth’s record, which stood since 1935.

In the storied “Rumble in the Jungle,” boxer George Foreman, previously undefeated in professional bouts, falls to Muhammad Ali in eight rounds at Kinshasa, Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo).

1975

Tennis player Arthur Ashe wins the singles title at Wimbledon, becoming the first African American man to win the prestigious championship.

Elijah Muhammad, leader of the Nation of Islam, dies. After his son renames the organization and integrates it into orthodox Islam, minister Louis Farrakhan reclaims and rebuilds the Nation of Islam.

Frank Robinson becomes the first African American manager of a Major League Baseball team, the Cleveland Indians.

1976

Barbara Jordan, congressional representative from Texas, delivers the keynote address at the Democratic National Convention. She confirms her reputation as one of the most eloquent public speakers of her era.

Congressman Andrew Young of Georgia becomes the first African American U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (UN).

1977

Alex Haley’s novel Roots: The Saga of an American Family (1976) is adapted for television, becoming one of the most popular shows in the history of American TV.

Benjamin L. Hooks becomes the executive director of the NAACP, succeeding Roy Wilkins. Stressing the need for affirmative action and increased minority voter registration, Hooks serves until 1993.

1978

In the Bakke decision regarding affirmative action, the U.S. Supreme Court rules against the use of fixed racial quotas in making decisions on admissions for professional schools. However, it rules that race can be a factor in admissions decisions.

1979

Baseball player Lou Brock steals his 935th base, becoming Major League Baseball’s all-time career stolen-base leader. Rickey Henderson would set a new record for stolen bases in 1991.

United Steelworkers of America v. Weber allows an affirmative action program to privilege African Americans if the program is intended to remedy past discrimination.

Rap comes to national prominence in the United States with the release of the Sugarhill Gang’s chart-topping song “Rapper’s Delight.”

1981

Civil rights leader Andrew Young is elected mayor of Atlanta, Georgia, an office he holds through 1989.

1982

Playwright Charles Fuller wins the Pulitzer Prize for drama for A Soldier’s Play. The play examines conflict among Black soldiers on a Southern army base during World War II.

Singer Michael Jackson creates a sensation with the album Thriller. It becomes one of the most popular albums of all time, selling more than 40 million copies.

1983

Writer Alice Walker receives the Pulitzer Prize for The Color Purple.

Harold Washington wins the Democratic nomination for mayor by upsetting incumbent Mayor Jane Byrne and Richard M. Daley. Washington is then elected the first African American mayor of Chicago, Illinois.

Civil rights leader Jesse Jackson announces his intention to run for the Democratic presidential nomination. He becomes the first African American man to make a serious bid for the presidency.

Guion Bluford, Jr., becomes the first African American in space as a member of the crew of the space shuttle Challenger.

1984

The Cosby Show, starring comedian Bill Cosby, becomes one of the most popular situation comedies in television history. It is praised for its broad cross-cultural appeal and avoidance of racial stereotypes.

1986

Playwright August Wilson receives the Pulitzer Prize for Fences. He wins the prize again for The Piano Lesson in 1990. Both are from his cycle of plays chronicling the Black American experience.

Martin Luther King, Jr., Day is first celebrated as a U.S. national holiday. The holiday, honoring civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., was officially established by a law of 1983.

1987

Basketball forward Julius Erving retires after becoming the third professional player to score a career total of 30,000 points.

1988

Runner Florence Griffith Joyner captures three gold medals and a silver in the Olympics at Seoul, South Korea.

1989

Modern dancer Judith Jamison becomes the artistic director of the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, following Ailey’s death.

David Dinkins becomes the first African American to be elected mayor of New York City.

1990–present: The Spirit of the Millennium and Beyond

1990

Jazz drummer Art Blakey dies. After founding the Jazz Messengers in 1954, he was responsible for nurturing generations of young jazz musicians.

1991

The Senate votes 52–48 to confirm the nomination of Justice Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court. During the confirmation hearings, Thomas’s former aide Anita Hill charged that he had sexually harassed her.

With much fanfare, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., is appointed W.E.B. Du Bois Professor of Humanities at Harvard University. He proceeds to build the university’s Department of Afro-American Studies.

1992

Riots break out in Los Angeles, California, sparked by the acquittal of four white police officers caught on videotape beating Rodney King, a Black motorist. The riots cause at least 55 deaths and about $1 billion in property damage.

Author Terry McMillan publishes Waiting to Exhale, which follows four middle-class African American women, each of whom is looking for the love of a worthy man. The book’s wild popularity leads to a film adaptation.

Singer Mary J. Blige releases her first solo album, What’s the 411?, produced primarily by rapper Sean “Puffy” Combs (Diddy). Redefining soul music, the album mixes classic soul with hip-hop and urban contemporary rhythm and blues.

Mae Jemison becomes the first African American woman astronaut, spending more than a week orbiting Earth in the space shuttle Endeavour.

Carol Moseley Braun becomes the first African American woman elected to the U.S. Senate, representing the state of Illinois.

1993

1993

Poet Maya Angelou, author of the autobiographical work I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, composes and delivers a poem for the inauguration of President Bill Clinton.

Cornel West, progressive postmodern philosopher, finds a mainstream audience with the publication of his book Race Matters. It is a close examination of the Black community about the time of the 1992 Los Angeles riots.

Poet Rita Dove, author of the Pulitzer Prize-winning book Thomas and Beulah, is chosen as poet laureate of the United States.

Writer Toni Morrison, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for fiction for Beloved, receives the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Joycelyn Elders becomes the first African American woman to serve as the U.S. surgeon general.

1994

At age 45, George Foreman becomes the world’s oldest heavyweight boxing champion.

1995

In one of the most celebrated criminal trials in American history, former football running back O.J. Simpson is acquitted of the murders of his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend Ronald Goldman.

Minister Louis Farrakhan, leader of the Nation of Islam, rises to the height of his influence as the most prominent organizer of the “Million Man March” of African American men in Washington, D.C.

1996

At the Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, sprinter Michael Johnson becomes the first man to win gold medals in the 200 meters and the 400 meters. He sets a 200-meter world record of 19.32 seconds.

1997

Tiger Woods becomes the first African American golfer to win the Masters Tournament.

Many African American women join the Million Woman March in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

1998

Michael Jordan, often considered the greatest all-around player in the history of basketball, leads the Chicago Bulls to their sixth championship.

The “Little Rock Nine”—nine Black students who were prevented from attending a formerly all-white public school in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957—are awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.

1999

Rosa Parks is awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.

The mistaken shooting and killing of an African immigrant, Amadou Diallo, by New York City policemen causes a national outcry.

2000

Tennis player Venus Williams becomes the first African American woman since Althea Gibson (1958) to win the singles championship at Wimbledon. Later in the year she becomes the first African American woman to win a gold medal in singles and doubles tennis at the same Olympic Games.

In response to widespread protest and a boycott by the NAACP, the South Carolina Senate passes a bill to remove the Confederate flag from the statehouse.

2001

General Colin Powell becomes the first African American to serve as U.S. secretary of state. He was also the first African American chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989–93).

Condoleezza Rice is named national security adviser, becoming the first woman and second African American to hold this position.

Roman Catholic Bishop Wilton Gregory becomes the first African American to be elected president of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops.

2002

Athlete Vonetta Flowers wins a gold medal in the women’s bobsled event, becoming the first African American to win a gold medal at the Winter Olympics.

Halle Berry becomes the first African American woman to win the Academy Award for best actress.

2003

The U.S. Supreme Court issues a ruling on affirmative action in education, upholding the use of race in collegiate admissions policies.

1st Lieutenant Vernice Armour becomes the first African American female combat pilot in the U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. military history.

2004

Rapper Kanye West releases his first solo album, The College Dropout. A successful producer as well as a performer, he would help deliver hits by such artists as Jay-Z, Ludacris, Alicia Keys, Nas, Lil Wayne, Mariah Carey, and Beyoncé.

Barack Obama becomes the third African American to be elected to the U.S. Senate after Reconstruction.

Baseball player Barry Bonds hits his 700th home run.

2005

Condoleezza Rice succeeds Colin Powell as U.S. secretary of state, becoming the first African American woman to hold the post.

2007

The eloquent silhouettes of artist Kara Walker are the focus of a major traveling exhibit, “Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love.”

Rap pioneer Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five becomes the first hip-hop act inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

2008

Barack Obama is elected president of the United States, becoming the first African American to win that position.

2009

Eric Holder becomes the first African American to serve as U.S. attorney general.

Rapper Jay-Z breaks Elvis Presley’s Billboard magazine record for the most number-one albums by a solo artist. The Blueprint 3 is Jay-Z’s 11th chart-topping album.

2010

The NAACP selects health care administrator Roslyn M. Brock, 44, to follow civil rights activist Julian Bond as its chairman, thereby passing the torch to a new generation.

2012

Trayvon Martin, an unarmed Black teenager, is fatally shot by George Zimmerman, a neighborhood-watch volunteer, in Sanford, Florida. Martin’s death heightens a debate over the persistence of racism and racial profiling in the United States. In 2013 a jury would find Zimmerman not guilty. Protests against the verdict are held across the United States. They lead to the formation of the Black Lives Matter social movement seeking better treatment of African Americans in all facets of American society.

2013

In Shelby County v. Holder, the U.S. Supreme Court invalidates a central provision of the Voting Rights Act. The provision barred certain jurisdictions from changing voting laws and procedures without federal approval. Following the ruling, a number of states in the South introduce controversial changes in their voting laws, such as strict voter ID requirements.

2014

Michael Brown, an unarmed Black teenager, is fatally shot by Darren Wilson, a white police officer, in Ferguson, Missouri. Days of civil unrest and protests break out, drawing national and international attention to police brutality.

2016

Thirteen years after its establishment, the National Museum of African American History and Culture (NMAAHC) opens to the public on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.

2020

Amid a continuing COVID-19 pandemic, reports show that African Americans were contracting the disease and dying of it at far higher rates than whites. In explaining these large disparities, many experts cite the effects of systemic racism.

George Floyd, an unarmed African American man, is killed while being pinned to the ground by white police officers in Minneapolis, Minnesota. A police officer kneels on Floyd’s neck for several minutes as Floyd calls for help, indicating that he cannot breathe. Riots and nonviolent demonstrations break out, with large numbers of peaceful protestors gathering nationally, and then internationally. Protests last for weeks as people demand an end to police brutality and to institutions, policies, and practices that perpetuate racism.