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kp-eb0901-000101-0016m	A, THE first symbol of every Indo-European alphabet, denotes also the primary vowel sound. This coincidence is probably only accidental. The alphabets of Europe, and perhaps of India also, were of Semitic origin, and in all the Semitic alphabets except one, this same symbol (in modified forms) holds the first place; but it represents a peculiar breathing, not the vowel a,— the vowels in the Semitic languages occupying a subordinate place, and having originally no special symbols. When the Greeks, with whom the vowel sounds were much more important, borrowed the alphabet of Phoenicia, they required symbols to express those vowels, and used for this purpose the signs of breathings which were strange to them, and therefore needed not to be preserved; thus the Phoenician equivalent of the Hebrew aleph became alpha; it denoted, however, no more a guttural breathing, but the purest vowel sound. Still, it would be too much to assume that the Greeks of that day were so skilled in phonetics that they assigned the first symbol of their borrowed alphabet to the a -sound, because they knew that sound to be the most essential vowel. This primary vowel-sound (the sound of a in father) is produced by keeping the passage through which the air is vocalised between the glottis and the lips in the most open position possible. In sounding all other vowels, the airchannel is narrowed by the action either of the tongue or the lips. But here neither the back of the tongue is raised (as it is in sounding o and other vowels), so that a free space is left between the tongue and the uvula, nor is the front of the tongue raised (as in sounding e ), so that the space is clear between the tongue and the palate. Again, no other vowel is pronounced with a wider opening of the lips; whereas the aperture is sensibly reduced at each side when we sound o, and still more when we sound u (that is, yoo). The whole channel, therefore, from the glottis, where the breath first issues forth to be modified in the oral cavity, to the lips, where it finally escapes, is thoroughly open. Hence arises the great importance of the sound, by reason of its thoroughly non-consonantal character. All vowels may be defined as open positions of the speech-organs, in which the breath escapes without any stoppage, friction, or sibilation arising from the contact of those organs, whereas consonants are heard when the organs open after such contact more or less complete. Now, all vowels except a are pronounced with a certain contraction of the organs; thus, in sounding the i (the English e -sound), the tongue is raised so as almost to touch the palate, the passage left being so close, that if the tongue were suffered for a second to rest on the palate, there would be heard not i but y ; and a similar relation exists between u and w. This is commonly expressed by calling y and w semi-vowels. We might more exactly call i and u consonantal-vowels; and as an historic fact, i does constantly pass into y, and u into w, and vice versa. But no consonant has this relation to the a -sound; it has absolutely no affinity to any consonant; it is, as we have called it, the one primary essential vowel. The importance of this sound may be shown by historical as well as by physiological evidence. We find by tracing the process of phonetic change in different languages, that when one vowel passes into another, it is the pure α-sound which thus assumes other forms, whereas other vowels do not pass into the a -sound, though sometimes the new sound may have this symbol. Roughly speaking, we might express the general character of vowel change by drawing two lines from a common point, at which a is placed. One of these lines marks the progress of an original a (ah- sound ) through e (a -sound), till it sinks finally to i (e -sound); the other marks a similar degradation, through o to u (oo -sound). This figure omits many minor modifications, and is subject to some exceptions in particular languages. But it represents fairly in the main the general process of vowel-change. Now, we do not assert that there ever was a time when a was the only existing vowel, but we do maintain that in numberless cases an original a has passed into other sounds, whereas the reverse process is excessively [9:1:2] rare. Consequently, the farther we trace back the history of language, the more instances of this vowel do we find; the more nearly, if not entirely, does it become the one starting point from which all vowel-sound is derived. It is principally to the effort required to keep this sound pure that we must attribute the great corruption of it in all languages, and in none more than our own. Indeed, in English, the short a -sound is never heard pure; it is heard in Scotland, e.g., in man, which is quite different from the same word on English lips. We have it, however, long in father, &c., though it is not common. It has passed into a great many other sounds, all of which are denoted in a most confusing way by the original symbol, and some by other symbols as well. Thus a denotes—(1.) The English vowel-sound in man, perhaps the most common of all the substitutes, dating from the 17th century. (2.) It appears in want; for this sound o is also employed, as in on. (3.) A more open sound is heard in all (also denoted by au in auk, and aw in awl). (4.) Very commonly it represents the continental e, as in ale (here also we have the symbol ai in ail). (5.) It is found in dare and many similar words, where the sound is really the e of den, prolonged in the utterance; here also ai is sometimes an equivalent, as in air. Then (6) there is a sound which is not that of a either in man or in father, but something between the two. It is heard in such words as ask, pass, grant, &c. All these may be, and often are, pronounced with the sound either of man or of father; still, we do often hear in them a clearly distinguishable intermediate sound, which ought to have a special symbol. Lastly (7), there is the dull sound heard in final unaccentuated syllables, e.g., in the word final itself. It is that to which all unaccentuated syllables tend; but it is also often heard even in monosyllables, where it is represented by every other vowelsymbol in the language, e.g., in her, sir, son, sun. This Protean sound is commonly called the neutral vowel; it occurs in all languages, but perhaps in none so frequently as in English. This great variety of sounds, which are all denoted among us by one symbol, clearly shows the insufficiency of our written alphabet. As in English, so in Sanskrit, the short «Λ-sound was lost, and was replaced regularly by the neutral sound. This was regarded by the grammarians as inherent in every consonant, and therefore was only written at the beginning of a word; in fact, it is the smallest amount of vowelsound requisite to float a consonant. Long a, however, kept its sound pure, and does so still in the vernaculars of India. In Latin the sound was probably pure, both short and long, and it has been preserved so in the Romance languages down to the present day. In Greek there was considerable variation, proved in one case at least by a variation of symbol; in Ionic a commonly passed into η, a symbol which probably denoted the modern Italian open e; but possibly the close e, that is, the English a in ale. On the other hand, it is probable that the Doric a approximated to an o, being sounded as a in our word want; and it is likely that this variation was the πλατειασμός which the grammarians attribute to the Dorians. This is commonly supposed to have been the retention of α where the Ionic had η ; but that was not peculiar to the Dorians, being common to all the Greeks except the Ionians. In the north of Europe we find a similar tendency to give to a an o -sound; thus in Norse, aa is sounded as an open o. By a further extension in the north of England, at least in such parts as have been specially exposed to Norwegian influence, au has the sound of o; e.g., law is pronounced lo. A is frequently used as a prefix in lieu of some fuller form in old English. Thus it stands for the preposition on (O.E. an) in away, again, afoot, asleep; for off in adown (O.E. of-dune); and seems to be intensive in athirst (O.E. of-thirst). Sometimes, especially with verbs, it represents the old English â which in old High German appears as ur or er, and in modern German as er, which signifies the completion of an action, as in erwachen, to which awake corresponds. Frequently no special force seems to be added by the prefix, as in abide, arise, &c. Sometimes a appears as the representative of the prefix commonly used in past participles, which has the form ge in German, and ge and y in old English, e.g., in ago or agone; compare aware (O.E. gewaere), among (O.E. gemang), &c. A also stood for the preposition an (on) in such expressions (now obsolete) as a-doing, a-making, where doing and making are verbal nouns. Lastly, it represents the prepositions on or of in the phrases now-a-days, Jack-a-lantern, and others. The place that A occupies in the alphabet accounts for its being much employed as a mark or symbol. It is used, for instance, to name the sixth note of the gamut in music; in some systems of notation it is a numeral (see Arithmetic); and in Logic it denotes a universal affirmative proposition (see Logic). In algebra, a and the first letters of the alphabet are employed to represent known quantities. Al marks the best class of vessels in Lloyd’s Register of British and Foreign Shipping. In the old poets, “ A per se” is found, meaning the highest degree of excellence; as when Chaucer calls Creseide “the floure and A per se of Troye and Grece.” A was the first of the eight literoe nundinales at Rome, and on this analogy it stands as the first of the seven Dominical letters. It is often used as an abbreviation, as in A.D. for anno domini, A.M. for ante meridiem, A.B. and A. Μ. for artium baccalaureus and artium magister. In commerce A stands for accepted. (J. P.)	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 1 [9:1:1]
kp-eb0901-000201-0017m	AA, the name of about forty small European rivers. The word is derived from the old German aha, cognate to the Latin agua, water. The following are the more important streams of this name :—a river of Holland, in North Brabant, which joins the Dommel at Bois-le-Duc; two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of Livonia, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the north of France, falling into the sea at Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldeker and Hallwyler into the Aar.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 2 [9:1:2]
kp-eb0901-000202-0017m	AACHEN. See Aix-La-Chapelle.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 2 [9:1:2]
kp-eb0901-000203-0017m	AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, is situated on the Liimfiord, about 15 miles from its junction with the Cattegat. It is the capital of the district of the same name, one of the subdivisions of the province of Jütland. The city is a place of considerable commercial importance, and contains a cathedral and a school of navigation. Soap, tobacco, and leather are manufactured; there are several distilleries; and the herring fishery is extensively prosecuted. Grain and herring are largely exported, as are also to a smaller extent wool, cattle, skins, tallow, salt provisions, and spirits. The harbour, which is good and safe, though difficult of access, is entered by about 800 vessels annually, and there is direct steam communication with Copenhagen. The district is celebrated for its breed of horses. Population (1870), 11,953.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 2 [9:1:2]
kp-eb0901-000204-0017m	AALEN, a walled town of Würtemberg, pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Alps, about 50 miles E. of Stuttgart. Woollen and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 till 1802, when it was annexed to Würtemberg. Population (1871), 5552.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 2 [9:1:2]
kp-eb0901-000205-0017m	AAR, or Aare, the most considerable river in Switzerland, after the Rhine and Rhone. It rises in the glaciers [9:1:3] of the Finster-aarhorn, Schreckhorn, and Grimsel, in the canton of Bern; and at the Handeck in the valley of Hash forms a magnificent water-fall of above 150 feet in height. It then falls successively into the lakes Brienz and Thun, and, emerging from the latter, flows through the cantons of Bern, Soleure, and Aargau, emptying itself into the Rhine, opposite Waldshut, after a course of about 170 miles. Its principal tributary streams are the Kander, Saane, and Thiele on the left, and the Emmen, Surin, Aa, Reuss, and Limmat, on the right. On its banks are situated Unterseen, Thun, Bern, Soleure or Solothurn, Aarburg, and Aarau. The Aar is a beautiful silvery river, abounding in fish, and is navigable from the Rhine as far as the Lake of Thun. Several small rivers in Germany have the same name.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 2 [9:1:2]
kp-eb0901-000301-0018m	AARAU, the chief town of the canton of Aargau in Switzerland, is situated at the foot of the Jura mountains, on the right bank of the river Aar, 41 miles N.E. of Bern. It is well built, and contains a town-hall, barracks, several small museums, and a library rich in histories of Switzerland. There is a cannon foundry at Aarau, and among the principal manufactures are silk, cotton, and leather; also cutlery and mathematical instruments, which are held in great repute. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains are partially covered with vines, and the vicinity of the town is attractive. About ten miles distant along the right bank of the Aar are the famous baths of Schinznach. Population, 5449.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 3 [9:1:3]
kp-eb0901-000302-0018m	AARD-VARK(earth-pig), an animal very common in South Africa, measuring upwards of three feet in length, and having a general resemblance to a short-legged pig. It feeds on ants, and is of nocturnal habits, and very timid and harmless. Its flesh is used as food, and when suitably preserved is considered a delicacy. The animal is the only known species of its genus (Orycteropus), and belongs to the order Edentata of the mammalia. The same prefix Aard appears in the name of the Aard-wolf (Proteles Lalandii), a rare animal found in Caffraria, which is said to partake of the characters of the dog and civet. See Mammalia.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 3 [9:1:3]
kp-eb0901-000303-0018m	AARGAU (French, Argovie), one of the cantons of Switzerland, derives its name from the river which flows through it, Aar-gau being the province or district of the Aar. It is bounded on the north by the Rhine, which divides it from the duchy of Baden, on the east by Zurich and Zug, on the south by Lucerne, and on the west by Bern, Soleure or Solothurn, and Basel. It has an area of 502 ½ square miles. By the census of 1870, the number of inhabitants was 198,873, showing an increase during the preceding ten years of 4665. Aargau stands sixth among the Swiss cantons in density of population, having 395 inhabitants to the square mile. The statistics of 1870 show that of the inhabitants 107,703 were Protestants, 89,180 Catholics, and 1541 Jews. German is the language almost universally spoken. Aargau is the least mountainous canton of Switzerland. It forms part of a great table-land to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, having a general elevation of from 1200 to 1500 feet. The hills do not rise to any greater height than 1800 feet above this table-land, or 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered by the Aar and its numerous tributaries, and by the rivulets which flow northward into the Rhine. Although moist and variable, the climate is milder than in most parts of Switzerland. The minerals of Aargau are unimportant, but remarkable palaeontological remains are found in its rocks. The soil to the left of the Aar is a stiff clay, but to the right it is light and productive. Agriculture is in an advanced state, and great attention is given to the rearing of cattle. There are many vineyards, and much fruit is grown. The canton is distinguished by its industry and its generally diffused prosperity. Many of the inhabitants are employed in the fishings on the Aar, and in the navigation of the river. In the villages and towns there are considerable manufactures of cotton goods, silk, and linen. The chief exports are cattle, hides, cheese, timber, raw cotton, yarn, cotton cloths, silk, machinery, and wooden wares; and the imports include wheat, wine, salt, leather, and iron. The most important towns are Aarau, Baden, Zofingen, and Laufenburg, and there are mineral springs at Baden, Schinznach, Leerau, and Niederweil. The Swiss Junction Railway crosses the Rhine near Waldshut, and runs south through the canton to Turgi, whence one line proceeds S.E. to Zurich, and another S.W. to Aarau and Olben. Until 1798, Aargau formed part of the canton of Bern, but when the Helvetic Republic was proclaimed, it was erected into a separate canton. In 1803 it received a considerable accession of territory, in virtue of the arrangement under which the French evacuated Switzerland. According to the law whereby the cantons are represented in the National Council by one member for every 20,000 inhabitants, Aargau returns ten representatives to that assembly. The internal government is vested in a legis.- lative council elected by the body of the people, while a smaller council of seven members is chosen by the larger body for the general administration of affairs. The resources of Aargau are stated to amount to about a million sterling; its revenue in 1867 was nearly £82,000, and the expenditure slightly greater. There is a public debt of about £40,000. The canton is divided into eleven districts, and these again are subdivided into forty-eight circles. There is a court of law for each district, and a superior court for the whole canton, to which cases involving sums above 160 francs can be appealed. Education is compulsory; but in the Roman Catholic districts the law is not strictly enforced. By improved schools and other appliances great progress has been made in education within the last thirty or forty years.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 3 [9:1:3]
kp-eb0901-000304-0018m	AARHUUS, a city and seaport of Denmark, situated on the Cattegat, in lat. 56° 9' N., long. 10° 12' E. It is the chief town of a fertile district of the same name, one of the subdivisions of Jutland. The cathedral of Aarhuus is a Gothic structure, and the largest church in Denmark. The town also contains a lyceum, museum, and library. Aarhuus is a place of extensive trade. It has a good and safe harbour, has regular steam communication with Copenhagen, and is connected by rail with Viborg and the interior of the country. Agricultural produce, spirits, leather, and gloves are exported, and there are sugar refineries, and manufactures of wool, cotton, and tobacco. Population (1870), 15,020.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 3 [9:1:3]	56 9' N 10 12' E
kp-eb0901-000305-0018m	AARON, the first high-priest of the Jews, eldest son of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi, and brother of Moses and Miriam. When Moses was commissioned to conduct the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan, Aaron was appointed to assist him, principally, it would appear, on account of his possessing, in a high degree, persuasive readiness of speech. On the occasion of Moses’ absence in Mount Sinai (to which he had gone up to receive the tables of the law), the Israelites, regarding Aaron as their leader, clamorously demanded that he should provide them with a visible symbolic image of their God for worship. He weakly complied with the demand, and out of the ornaments of gold contributed for the purpose cast the figure of a calf, this form being doubtless chosen in recollection of the idols of Egypt. In obedience to instructions given by God to Moses, Aaron was appointed high-priest; his sons and descendants, priests; and his tribe was set apart as the sacerdotal caste. The office of high-priest was held by Aaron for nearly forty years, till the time of his [9:1:4] death, which took place on Mount Hor, when he was 123 years old.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 3 [9:1:3]
kp-eb0901-000401-0019m	AARSSENS, Francis Van (1572-1641), one of the greatest diplomatists of the United Provinces. He represented the States-General at the Court of France for many years, and was also engaged in embassies to Venice, Germany, and England. His great diplomatic ability appears from the memoirs he wrote of his negotiations in 1624 with Richelieu, who ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time. A deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens from the share he had in the death of Barneveldt, who was put to death by the States-General, after the semblance of a trial, in 1619.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 4 [9:1:4]
kp-eb0901-000402-0019m	ABABDE, an African tribe occupying the country between the Red Sea and the Nile, to the S. of Kosseir, nearly as far as the latitude of Derr. Many of the race have settled on the eastern bank of the Nile, but the greater part still live like Bedouins. They are a distinct race from the Arabs, and are treacherous and faithless in their dealings. They have few horses; when at war with other tribes, they fight from camels, their breed of which is famed. They possess considerable property, and trade in senna, and in charcoal made from acacia wood, which they send as far as Cairo.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 4 [9:1:4]
kp-eb0901-000403-0019m	ABACA or Abaka, a name given to the Musa textilis, the plant that produces the fibre called Manilla Hemp, and also to the fibre itself.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 4 [9:1:4]
kp-eb0901-000404-0019m	ABACUS, an architectural term (from the Gr. άβαξ, a tray or flat board) applied to the upper part of the capital of a column, pier, &c. The early form of an abacus is simply a square flat stone, probably derived from the Tuscan order. In Saxon work it is frequently simply chamfered, but sometimes grooved, as in the crypt at Repton (fig. 1), and in the arcade of the refectory at Westminster. The abacus in Norman work is square where the columns are small; but on larger piers it is sometimes octagonal, as at Waltham Abbey. The square of the abacus is often sculptured, as at the White Tower and at Alton (fig. 2). In early English work the abacus is generally circular, and in larger work a continuation of circles (fig. 4), sometimes octagonal, and occasionally square. The mouldings are generally rounds, which overhang deep hollows. The abacus in early French work is generally square, as at Blois ’(fig. 3). The term is applied in its diminutive form (Abacis-eus) to the chequers or squares of a tessellated pavement. Abacus also signifies an instrument employed by the ancients for arithmetical calculations; pebbles, bits of bone, or coins, being used as counters. The accompanying figure (5) of a Roman abacus is taken from an ancient monument. It contains seven long and seven shorter rods or bars, the former having four perforated beads running on them, and the latter one. The bar marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on the shorter bars denote fives,—five units, five tens, &c. The rod θ and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces; and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce. The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 6) closely resembles the Roman abacus in its construction aud use. Computations arc made with it by means of balls of bone or ivory running on slender bamboo rods similar to the simpler board, fitted up with beads strung on wires, which is employed in teaching the rudiments of arithmetic in elementary schools.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 4 [9:1:4]
kp-eb0901-000405-0019m	ABAe, a town of ancient Greece in the E. of Phocis, famous for a temple and oracle of Apollo. The temple was plundered and burned by the Persians (b.c. 480), and again by the Boeotians (b.c. 346), and was restored on a smaller scale by Hadrian. Remains of the temple and town may still be traced on a peaked hill near Exarkho. See Leake’s Northern Greece.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 4 [9:1:4]
kp-eb0901-000406-0019m	ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the government of Yeniseisk, on the river Abakan, near its confluence with the Yenisei. Lat. 54° N.; long. 91° 14' E. This is considered the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and is remarkable for the tumuli in its neighbourhood, and for some statues of men from seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics. Population about 1000. ΑΒΑΝΑ and Pharpar, “rivers of Damascus” (2 Kings V. 12), are now generally identified with the Barada and the Awaj respectively. The former flows through the city of Damascus; the Awaj, a smaller stream, passes eight miles to the south. Both run from west to east across the plain of Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility, and lose themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called, on the borders of the great Arabian desert. Mr Macgregor, who gives an interesting description of these rivers in his Rob Roy on the Jordan, affirms that “as a work of hydraulic engineering, the system and construction of the canals by which the Abana and Pharpar are used for irrigation, may be still considered as the most complete and extensive in the world.”	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 4 [9:1:4]	54 N 91 14' E
kp-eb0901-000407-0019m	ABANCAY, a town of Peru, in the department of Cuzco, 65 miles W.S.W. of the town of that name. It lies on the river Abancay, which is here spanned by one of the finest bridges in Peru. Rich crops of sugar-cane are produced in the district, and the town has extensive sugar refineries. Hemp is also cultivated, and silver is found in the mountains. Popidation, 1200.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 4 [9:1:4]
kp-eb0901-000408-0019m	ABANDONMENT, in Marine Assurance, is the surrendering of the ship or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive total loss of the thing insured. There is an absolute total loss entitling the assured to recover the full amount of his insurance wherever the thing insured has ceased to exist to any useful purpose,—and in such a case abandonment is not required. Where the thing assured continues to exist in specie, yet is so damaged that there is no reasonable hope of repair, or it is not worth the expense of bringing it, or what remains of it, to its destination, the insured may treat the case as one of a total loss (in this case called constructive total loss), and demand the full sum insured. But, as the contract of insurance is one of indemnity, the insured must, in such a case, make an express cession of all his right to the recovery of the subject insured to the underwriter by abandonment. Tho insured must intimate big intention to abandon, within a [9:1:5] reasonable time after receiving correct information as to the loss; any unnecessary delay being held as an indication of his intention not to abandon. An abandonment when once accepted is irrevocable; but in no circumstances s the insured obliged to abandon. After abandonment, the captain and crew are still bound to do all in their power to save the property for the underwriter, without prejudice to the right of abandonment; for which they are entitled to wages and remuneration from the insurers, at least so far as what is saved will allow. See Arnould, Marshall, and Park, on the Law of Insurance, and the judgment of Lord Abinger in Roux v. Salvador, 3 Bing. N.C. 266, Tudor’s Leading Cases, 139. Abandonment has also a legal signification in the law of railways. Under the Acts 13 and 14 Vict. c. 83, 14 and 15 Vict. c. 64, 30 and 31 Vict. c. 126, and 32 and 33 Vict. c. 114, the Board of Trade may, on the application of a railway company, made by the authority aud with the consent of the holders of three-fifths of its shares or stock, and on certain conditions specified in the Acts, grant a warrant authorising the abandonment of the railway or a portion of it. After due publication of this warrant, the company is released from all liability to make, maintain, or work the railway, or portion of the railway, authorised to be abandoned, or to complete any contracts relating to it, subject to certain provisions and exceptions. Abandoning a young child under two years of age, so that its life shall be endangered, or its health permanently injured, or likely to be so, is in England a misdemeanour, punishable by penal servitude or imprisonment, 24 and 25 Vict. c. 100, § 273. In Scotland abandoning or exposing an infant is an offence at common law, although no evil consequences should happen to the child.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 4 [9:1:4]
kp-eb0901-000501-0020m	ABANO, a town of Northern Italy, 6 miles S.W. of Padua. There are thermal springs in the neighbourhood, which have been much resorted to by invalids for bathing, both in ancient and modern times. They were called by the Romans Aponi Fons, and also Aquae Patavinae. Population of Abano, 3000.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 5 [9:1:5]
kp-eb0901-000502-0020m	ABANO, Pietro d', known also as Petrus de Apono or Aponensis, a distinguished physician and philosopher, was born at the Italian town from which he takes his name in 1250, or, according to others, in 1246. After visiting the east in order to acquire the Greek language, he went to study at Paris, where he became a doctor of medicine and philosophy. In Padua, to which he returned when his studies were completed, he speedily gained a great reputation as a physician, and availed himself of it to gratify his avarice by refusing to visit patients except for an exorbitant fee. Perhaps this as well as his meddling with astrology caused the charge to be brought against him of practising magic, the particular accusations being that he brought back into his purse, by the aid of the devil, all the money he paid away, and that he possessed the philosopher’s stone. He was twice brought to trial by the Inquisition; on the first occasion he was acquitted, and he died (1316) before the second trial was completed. He was found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed and burned; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public proclamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in effigy. In his writings he expounds and advocates the medical and philosophical systems of Averrhoes and other Arabian writers. His best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum, quae inter philosophos et medicos versantur (Mantua, 1472, Venice, 1476), and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472), of which a French translation was published at Lyons in 1593.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 5 [9:1:5]
kp-eb0901-000503-0020m	ABARIS, the Hyperborean, a celebrated sage of antiquity, who visited Greece about 570 b.c., or, according to others, a century or two earlier. The particulars of his history are differently related by different authors, but all accounts are more or less mythical. He is said to have travelled over sea and land, riding on an arrow given him by Apollo, to have lived without food, to have delivered the whole earth from a plague, &c. Various works in prose and verse are attributed to Abaris by Suidas and others, but of these we have no certain information.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 5 [9:1:5]
kp-eb0901-000504-0020m	ABATEMENT, Abate, from the French abattre, abater, to throw down, demolish. The original meaning of the word is preserved in various legal phrases. The abatement of a nuisance is the remedy allowed by law to a person injured by a public nuisance of destroying or removing it by his own act, provided he commit no breach of the peace in doing so. In the case of private nuisances abatement is also allowed, provided there be no breach of the peace, and no damage be occasioned beyond what the removal of the nuisance requires. Abatement of freehold takes place where, after the death of the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of possession. It differs from intrusion, which is a similar entry by a stranger on the death of a tenant for life, to the prejudice of the reversioner, or remainder man; and from disseisin, which is the forcible or fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold. Abatement among legatees (defalcatis) is a proportionate deduction which their legacies suffer when the funds out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full. Abatement in pleading is the. defeating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of fact, such as a defect in form or personal incompetency of the parties suing, . pleaded by the defendant. Such a plea is called a plea in abatement; and as it does not involve the merits of the cause, it leaves the right of action subsisting. Since 1852 it has been competent to obviate the effect of such pleas by amendment, so as to allow the real question in controversy between the parties to be tried in the same suit. In litigation an action is said to abate or cease on the death of one of the parties. Abatement, or Rebate, is a discount allowed for prompt payment; it also means a deduction sometimes made at the custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses. The rate and conditions of such deductions are regulated by Act 16 and 17 Vict. c. 107.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 5 [9:1:5]
kp-eb0901-000505-0020m	ABATI, or Dell’Abbato, Niccolo, a celebrated fresco-painter of Modena, born in 1512. His best works are at Modena and Bologna, and have been highly praised by Zanotti, Algarotti, and Lanzi. He accompanied Primaticcio to France, and assisted in decorating the palace at Fontain-bleau (1552-1571). His pictures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace, and natural colouring. Some of his easel pieces in oil are in different collections; one of the finest, now in the Dresden Gallery, represents the martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul. Abati died at Paris in 1571.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 5 [9:1:5]
kp-eb0901-000506-0020m	ABATTOIR, from abattre, primarily signifies a slaughterhouse proper, or place where animals are killed as distinguished from boucheries and étaux publics, places where the dead meat is offered for sale. But the term is also employed to designate a complete meat market, of which the abattoir proper is merely part. Perhaps the first indication of the existence of abattoirs may be found in the system which prevailed under the Emperors in ancient Rome. A corporation or guild of butchers undoubtedly existed there, which delegated to its officers the duty of slaughtering the beasts required to supply the city with meat. The establishments requisite [9:1:6] for this purpose were at first scattered about the various streets, but were eventually confined to one quarter, and formed the public meat market. This market, in the time of Nero, was one of the most imposing structures in the city, and some idea of its magnificence has been transmitted to us by a delineation of it preserved on an ancient coin. As the policy and customs of the Romans made themselves felt in Gaul, the Roman system of abattoirs, if it may be so called, was introduced there in an imperfect form. A clique of families in Paris long exercised the special function of catering for the public wants in respect of meat. But as the city increased in magnitude and population, the necessity of keeping slaughter-houses as much as possible apart from dwelling-houses became apparent. As early as the time of Charles IX., the attention of the French authorities was directed to the subject, as is testified by a decree passed on the 25th of February 1567. But although the importance of the question was frequently recognised, no definite or decided step seems to have been taken to effect the contemplated reform until the time of Napoleon I. The evil had then reached a terribly aggravated form. Slaughter-houses abutted on many of the principal thoroughfares; the traffic was impeded by the constant arrival of foot-sore beasts, whose piteous cries pained the ear; and rivulets of blood were to be seen in the gutters of the public streets. The constant accumulation of putrid offal tainted the atmosphere, and the Seine was polluted by being used as a common receptacle for slaughter-house refuse. This condition of things could not be allowed to continue, and on the 9th of February 1810, a decree was passed authorising the construction of abattoirs in the outskirts of Paris, and appointing a Commission, to which was committed the consideration of the entire question. The result of the appointment of this Commission was the construction of the five existing abattoirs, which were formally opened for business on the 15th of September 1818. The Montmartre abattoir occupies 8¾ English acres; Ménilmontant, 10¼ acres; Grenelle, 7¾; Du Roule, 5¾; and Villejuif, 5½. The first two contain each 64 slaughterhouses and the same number of cattle-sheds; the third, 48; and each of the others 32. The dimensions of each of the slaughter-houses is about 29 ½ feet by 13. The general arrangement of the abattoirs will be understood from the preceding plan of that of Ménilmontant. The component parts of a French abattoir are—1. Echaudoirs, which is the name given by the Paris butcher to the particular division allotted to him for the purpose of knocking down his beasts; 2. Bouveries et Bergeries, the places set apart for the animals waiting to be slaughtered, where the animals, instead of being killed at once, after a long and distressing journey, when their blood is heated and their flesh inflamed, are allowed to cool and rest till the body is restored to its normal healthy condition; 3. Fondeurs, or boiling-down establishments; and, 4. Triperies, which are buildings set apart for the cleaning of the tripe of bullocks, and the fat, heads, and tripe of sheep and calves. Besides these, a Paris abattoir contains Logements des agens, Magasins, Réservoirs, Voiries, Lieux d'aisance, Voûtes, Remises et écuries, Parcs aux Boeufs, &c., and is provided with an abundant supply of water. All the abattoirs are under the control of the municipal authorities, and frequent inspections are made by persons regularly appointed for that purpose. The abattoirs are situated within the barriers, each at a distance of about a mile aud three-quarters from the heart of the city, in districts where human habitations are still comparatively few. There are two principal markets from which the abattoirs at Paris are supplied,—the one at Poissy, about 13 miles to the north-west, and the other at Sceaux, about 5 miles and a quarter to the south of the city. There are also two markets for cows and calves, namely, La Chapelle and Les Bernadins. The Paris abattoirs were until recently the most perfect specimens of their class; and even now, although in some of their details they have been surpassed by the new Islington meat market, for their complete and compact arrangement they remain unrivalled. The example set by Paris in this matter has been followed in a more or less modified form by most of the principal Continental towns, and the system of abattoirs has become almost universal in France. The condition of London in this important sanitary respect was for a long period little more endurable than that of Paris before the adoption of its reformed system. Smithfield market, situated in a very populous neighbourhood, continued till 1852 to be an abomination to the town and a standing reproach to its authorities. No fewer than 243,537 cattle and 1,455,249 sheep were sold there in 1852, to be afterwards slaughtered in the crowded courts and thoroughfares of the metropolis. But public opinion at length forced the Legislature to interfere, and the corporation was compelled to abandon Smithfield market and to provide a substitute for it elsewhere. The site selected was in the suburb of Islington, and the designs for the work were prepared by Mr Bunning. The first stone was laid March 24, 1854, and the market was opened by Prince Albert, June 15, 1855. The Islington market is undoubtedly the most perfect of its kind. It occupies a space of some 20 acres on the high land near the Pentonville prison, and is open to both native and foreign cattle, excepting beasts from foreign countries under quarantine. In connection with the Islington cattle market are a few slaughter-houses, half of which were originally public, and half rented to private individuals; but at present they are all practically private, and the majority of the cattle sold are driven away and killed at private slaughter-houses. In this respect the London system differs from that of Paris; and it may be said for the former that the meat is less liable to be spoiled by being carted to a distance, and is therefore probably delivered in better condition; but the latter secures that great desideratum, the practical extinction of isolated slaughter-houses. [9:1:7] The Edinburgh abattoir, erected in 1851 by the corporation, from designs prepared by Mr David Cousin, the city architect, is the best as regards both construction and management in the United Kingdom. It occupies an area of four acres and a quarter, surrounded by a screen-wall, from which, along the greater part of its length, the buildings are separated by a considerable open space. Opposite the principal gateway is a double row of buildings, extending in a straight line to about 376 feet in length, with a central roadway (marked AA in the annexed plan), 25 feet wide. There are three separate blocks of building on each side of the roadway, the central one being 140 feet in length, and the others 100 feet each—cross-roads 18 feet wide separating the blocks. These ranges of building, as well as two smaller blocks that are placed transversely behind the eastern central block, are divided into compartments, numbering 42 in all, and all arranged on the same plan. Next the roadway is the slaughtering-booth (BB), 18 feet by 24, and 20 feet in height, and behind this is a shed (CC) 18 feet by 22, where the cattle are kept before being slaughtered. All the cattle are driven into these sheds by a back-entrance, through the small enclosed yards (DD). The large doors of the booths are hung by balance weights, and slide up and down, so as to present no obstruction either within the booth or outside. By a series of large ventilators along the roof, and by other contrivances, the slaughtering-booths are thoroughly ventilated. Great precautions have been used to keep rats out of the buildings. To effect this, the booths are laid with thick well-dressed pavement, resting on a stratum of concrete 12 inches thick, and the walls, to the height of 7 feet, are formed of solid ashlar; the roadways, too, are laid with concrete, and causewayed with dressed whinstone pavement; and the drainage consists entirely of glazed earthenware tubes. The ground on which the abattoir is built was previously connected with a distillery, and contains a well 100 feet deep (E), which, with the extensive system of tunnels attached to it, provides the establishment with an abundant supply of pure water. By means of a steam-engine (F), introduced in 1872, the water is pumped up into a raised tank (G), whence it is distributed to the different booths and sheds, as well as for scouring the roadways and drains. The steam from the engine is utilised in heating water for the numerous cast-iron tanks required in the operations of cleansing and dressing the tripery (H) and pig slaughtering-house (I). By an ingenious arrangement of rotary brushes driven by the steam-engine,—the invention of Mr Rutherford, the superintendent,—the tripe is dressed in a superior manner, and at greatly less cost than by the tedious and troublesome method of handcleaning. By the Edinburgh Slaughter-Houses Act of 1850, the management is vested in the city authorities. Booths are let at a statutory rent of £8 each per annum, and, in addition to this, gate-dues are payable for every beast entering the establishment. The present rates for tenants of booths are 1½d. for an ox or cow, fd. for a calf or pig, and ¼d. for a sheep. Common booths are provided for butchers who are not tenants, on payment of double gate-dues. The city claims the blood, gut, and manure. The tripe and feet are dressed for the trade without extra charge. The blood was formerly collected in large casks, and disposed of for manufacturing purposes. This necessitated the storage of it for several days, causing in warm weather a very offensive effluvium. It even happened at times, when there was little demand for the commodity, that the blood had to be sent down the drains. All nuisance is now avoided, and the amount received annually for the blood has risen from between £200 and £450 to from £800 to £1200, by a contract into which Messrs Smith and Forrest of Manchester have entered with the city authorities, to take over the whole blood at a fixed price per beast. They have erected extensive premises and apparatus at their own cost, for extracting from the blood the albumen, for which there is great demand in calico-printing, and for converting the clot into manure. In connection with the establishment is a boiling-house, where all meat unfit for human food is boiled down and destroyed. The number of carcases seized by the inspector, and sent to the boiling-house, during the 5½ years ending with the close of 1872, amounted to 1449, giving a weight of upwards of 400,000 pounds. Before the erection of these buildings, private slaughterhouses were scattered all over the city, often in the most populous districts, where, through want of drainage and imperfect ventilation, they contaminated the whole neighbourhood. Since the opening of the public abattoir, all private slaughtering, in the city or within a mile of it, is strictly prohibited. Few of the provincial towns in Great Britain have as yet followed the example of London and Edinburgh. In some instances improvements on the old system have been adopted, but Great Britain is still not only far behind her foreign neighbours in respect of abattoirs, but has even been excelled by some of her own dependencies. In America abattoirs are numerous, and at Calcutta and other towns in British India, the meat markets present a very creditable appearance from their cleanliness and systematic arrangement. (c. N. b.)	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 5 [9:1:5]
kp-eb0901-000701-0022m	ABAUZIT, Firmin, a learned Frenchman, was born of Protestant parents at Uzès, in Languedoc, in 1679. His father, who was of Arabian descent, died when he was but two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother contrived his escape. For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last reached Geneva, where their mother afterwards joined them on escaping from the imprisonment in which she was held from the time of their flight. Abauzit’s youth was spent in diligent study, and at an early age he acquired great proficiency in languages, physics, and theology. In 1698 he travelled into Holland, and there became acquainted with Bayle, Jurieu, and Basnage. Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir Isaac Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defenders of the great truths his discoveries disclosed to the world. [9:1:8] Sir Isaac corrected in the second edition of his Principia an error pointed out by Abauzit. The high estimate Newton entertained of his merits appears from the compliment he paid to Abauzit, when, sending him the Commercium, Epistolicum, he said, “You are well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me.” The reputation of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in England, but he did not accept the king’s offer, preferring to return to Geneva. There from 1715 he rendered valuable assistance to a society that had been formed for translating the New Testament into French. He declined the offer of the chair of philosophy in the University in 1723, but accepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the city of his adoption. Here he died at a good old age, in 1767. Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful versatility. The varied knowledge he possessed was so well digested and arranged in his retentive mind as to be always within his reach for immediate use. Whatever chanced to be discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit, as of Professor Whewell of our own times, that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular study. Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his praises, addressed to him, in his Nouvelle Héloïse, a fine panegyric; and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen Abauzit. Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into their possession, because their religious opinions differed from those of Abauzit. A few theological, archaeological, and astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the Journal Helvétique and elsewhere, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau’s Dictionary of Music. A work he wrote throwing doubt on the canonical authority of the Apocalypse was answered—conclusively, as Abauzit himself allowed—by Dr Leonard Twells. He edited, and made valuable additions to Spon’s History of Geneva. A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770, and another at London in 1773. Some of them were translated into English by Dr Harwood (1770, 1774). Information regarding Abauzit will be found in Senebier’s Histoire Littéraire de Genève, Harwood’s Miscellanies, and Orme’s Bibliotheca Biblica, 1834.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 7 [9:1:7]
kp-eb0901-000801-0023m	ABB, a town of Yemen in Arabia, situated on a mountain in the midst of a very fertile country, 73 miles N.E. of Mocha. Lat. 13° 58' N., long. 44° 15' E. It contains about 800 houses, and is surrounded by a strong wall; the streets are well paved; and an aqueduct from a neighbouring mountain supplies it with water, which is received in a reservoir in front of the principal mosque. The population is about 5000.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 8 [9:1:8]	13 58' N 44 15' E
kp-eb0901-000802-0023m	ABBADIE, James, an eminent Protestant divine, was born at Nay in Bern about 1657. His parents were poor, but through the kindness of discerning friends, he received an excellent education. He prosecuted his studies with such success, that on completing his course at Sedan, though only seventeen years of age, he had conferred on him the degree of doctor in theology. After spending some years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church, he accompanied Marshal Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and became minister of the French church in the Savoy, London. His strong attachment to the cause of King William appears in his elaborate defence of the Revolution, as well as in his history of the conspiracy of 1696, the materials of which were furnished, it is said, by the secretaries of state. The king promoted him to the deanery of Killaloc in Ireland. He died in London in 1727. Abbadie was a man of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were translated from the original French into other languages, and had a wide circulation all over Europe. The most important of these are Traité de la Vérité de l a Religion Chrétienne; its continuation, Traité de la Divinité de Jésus-Christ; and L' Art de se connaître Soi-même.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 8 [9:1:8]
kp-eb0901-000803-0023m	ABBAS I., surnamed the Great, one of the most celebrated of the sovereigns of Persia, was the youngest son of Shah Mohammed Khodabendeh. After heading a successful rebellion against his father, and causing one of his brothers (or, as some say, both) to be assassinated, he obtained possession of the throne at the early age of eighteen (1585). Determined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country, he first directed his efforts against the predatory Uzbeks, who occupied and harassed Khorasan. After a long and severe struggle, he defeated them in a great battle near Herat (1597), and drove them cut of his dominions. In the wars he carried on with the Turks during nearly the whole of his reign, his successes were numerous, and he acquired or regained a large extent of territory. By the victory he gained at Bassorah (1605), he extended his empire beyond the Euphrates; Achmed I. was forced to cede Shirwan and Kurdistan in 1611; the united armies of the Turks and Tartars were completely defeated near Sultanieh in 1618, and Abbas made peace on very favourable terms; and on the Turks renewing the war, Baghdad fell into his hands after a year’s siege (1623). In the same year he took the island of Ormuz from the Portuguese, by the assistance of the British. When he died in 1628, his dominions reached from the Tigris to the Indus. Abbas distinguished himself, not only by his successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his court, but also by his reforms in the administration of his kingdom. He encouraged commerce, and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did much to facilitate it. To foreigners, especially Christians, he showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Shirley, were admitted to his confidence, and seem to have had much influence over him. His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds of tyranny and cruelty. His own family, especially, suffered from his fits of jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and the eyes of his other children were put out, by his orders.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 8 [9:1:8]
kp-eb0901-000804-0023m	ABBAS MIRZA (b. 1785, d. 1833), Prince of Persia, third son of the Shah Feth Ali, was destined by his father to succeed him in the government, because of his mother’s connection with the royal tribe of the Khadjars. He led various expeditions against the Russians, but generally without success (1803, 1813, 1826). By a treaty made between Russia and Persia in 1828, the right of Abbas to the succession was recognised. When the Russian deputies were murdered by the Persian populace in 1829, Abbas was sent to St Petersburg, where he received a hearty welcome from the Czar, and made himself a favourite by his courtesy and literary taste. He formed a design against Herat, but died shortly after the siege had been opened by his son, who succeeded Feth Ali as the Shah Mohammed Mirza. He was truthful—a rare quality in an Eastern—plain in dress and style of living, and fond of literature.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 8 [9:1:8]
kp-eb0901-000805-0023m	ABBASSIDES, the caliphs of Baghdad, the most famous dynasty of the sovereigns of the Mahometan or Saracen empire. They derived their name and descent from Abbas (b. 566, d. 652 a.d.), the uncle and adviser of Mahomet, and succeeded the dynasty of the Ommiads, th( caliphs of Damascus. Early in the 8th century the family of Abbas had acquired great influence from their near relationship to the Prophet; and Ibrahim, the fourth in descent from Abbas, supported by the province of Khorasan, obtained several successes over the Ommiad armies, but was captured and put to death by the Caliph Merwan (747). Ibrahim’s brother. Abul-Abbas, whom he [9:1:9] had named his heir, assumed the title of caliph, and, by a decisive victory near the river Zab (750), effected the overthrow of the Ommiad dynasty. Merwan fled to Egypt, but was pursued and put to death, and the vanquished family was treated with a severity which gained for Abul-Abbas the surname of Al-Saffah, the Blood-shedder. From this time the house of Abbas was fully established in the government, but the Spanish provinces were lost to the empire by the erection of an independent caliphate of Cordova, under Abderrahman. On the death of Abul-Abbas, Almansur succeeded to the throne, and founded Baghdad as the seat of empire. He and his son Mohdi waged war successfully against the Turkomans and Greeks of Asia Minor; but from this time the rule of the Abbassides is marked rather by the development of the liberal arts than by extension of territory. The strictness of the Mohammedan religion was relaxed, and the faithful yielded to the seductions of luxury. The caliphs Harun Al-Rashid (786-809) and Al-Mamun (813-833) attained a world-wide celebrity by their gorgeous palaces, their vast treasures, and their brilliant and numerous equipages, in all which their splendour contrasted strikingly with the poverty of European sovereigns. The former is known as one of the heroes of the Arabian Nights; the latter more worthily still as a liberal patron of literature and science. It is a mistake, however, to look in the rule of these caliphs for the lenity of modern civilisation. “No Christian government,” says Hallam, “except perhaps that of Constantinople, exhibits such a series of tyrants as the caliphs of Baghdad, if deeds of blood, wrought through unbridled passion or jealous policy, may challenge the name of tyranny.” The territory of the Abbassides soon suffered dismemberment, and their power began to decay. Rival sovereignties (Ashlabites, Edrisites, &c.) arose in Africa, and an independent government was constituted in Khorasan (820), under the Taherites. In the West, again, the Greeks encroached upon the possessions of the Saracens in Asia Minor. Ruin, however, came from a less civilised race. The caliphs had continually been waging war with the Tartar hordes of Turkestan, and many captives taken in these wars were dispersed throughout the empire. Attracted by their bravery and fearing rebellion among his subjects, Motassem (833-842), the founder of Samarah, and successful opponent of the Grecian forces under Theophilus, formed bodyguards of the Turkish prisoners, who became from that time the real governors of the Saracen empire. Mota-wakkel, son of Motassem, was assassinated by them in the palace (861); and succeeding caliphs became mere puppets in their hands. Radhi (934-941) was compelled by the disorganised condition of his kingdom to delegate to Mohammed ben Rayek (936 a.d.), under the title of Emir-al-Omara, commander of the commanders, the government of the army and the other functions of the caliphate. Province after province proclaimed itself independent; the caliph’s rule became narrowed to Baghdad and its vicinity; and the house of Abbas lost its power in the East for ever, when Hulagu, prince of the Mongols, set Baghdad on fire, and slew Motassem, the reigning caliph (20th Feb. 1258). The Abbassides continued to hold a semblance of power in the merely nominal caliphate of Egypt, and feebly attempted to recover their ancient seat. The last of them, Motawakkel III., was taken by Sultan Selim I., the conqueror of Egypt, to Constantinople, and detained there for some time as a prisoner. He afterwards returned to Egypt, and died at Cairo a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 8 [9:1:8]
kp-eb0901-000901-0024m	ABBÉ is the French word corresponding to Abbot, but, from the middle of the sixteenth century to the time of the French Revolution, the term had a wider application. The assumption by a numerous class of the name and style of abbé appears to have originated in the right conceded to the King of France, by a concordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis I., to appoint abbés commendataires to 225 abbeys, that is, to most of the abbeys in France. This kind of appointment, whereby the living was commended to some one till a proper election could take place, though ostensibly provisional, really put the nominee in full and permanent possession of the benefice. He received about one-third of the revenues of the abbey, but had no share in its government, the charge of the house being intrusted to a resident officer, the prieur claustral. The abbés commendataires were not necessarily priests; the papal bull required indeed that they should take orders within a stated time after their appointment, but there seems to have been no difficulty in procuring relief from that obligation. The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the Church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed— abbés de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) abbés de sainte espérance, abbés of St Hope— came to hold a recognised position, that perhaps proved as great an attraction as the hope of preferment. The connection many of them had with the Church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name of abbé, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study; practising celibacy; and wearing a distinctive dress—a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. As might be imagined from the objectless sort of life the class led, many of the abbés were of indifferent character; but there are not a few instances of abbés attaining eminence, both in political life and in the walks of literature and science. The Abbé Sieyès may be taken as a prominent example of the latter type.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 9 [9:1:9]
kp-eb0901-000902-0024m	ABBEOKUTA, or Abeokuta, a town of West Africa in the Yoruba Country, situated in N. lat. 7° 8', and E. long. 3 o 25', on the Ogun River, about 50 miles north of Lagos, in a direct line, or 81 miles by water. It lies in a beautiful and fertile country, the surface of which is broken by masses of grey granite. Like most African towns, Abbeokuta is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded by mud walls, 18 miles in extent. The houses are also of mud, and the streets mostly narrow and filthy. There are numerous markets in which native products and articles of European manufacture are exposed for sale. Palm-oil and shea-butter are the chief articles of export, and it is expected that the cotton of the country will become a valuable article of commerce. The slave trade and human sacrifices have been abolished; but notwithstanding the efforts of English and American missionaries, the natives are still idle and degraded. The state called Egbaland, of which Abbeokuta is the capital, has an area of about 3000 square miles. Its progress has been much hindered by frequent wars with the king of Dahomey. Population of the town, about 150,000; of the state or adjacent territory, 50,000. (See Burton’s Abbeokuta and the Cameroon Mountains, 2 vols.)	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 9 [9:1:9]	7 8' N 3 E
kp-eb0901-000903-0024m	ABBESS, the female superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The mode of election, position, rights, and authority of an abbess, correspond generally with those of an abbot. The office was elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. The abbess was solemnly admitted to her office by episcopal benediction, together with the conferring of a staff and pectoral, and held it for life, though liable to be deprived for misconduct. The Council of Trent fixes the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of profession. Abbesses had [9:1:10] a right to demand absolute obedience of their nuns, over whom they exercised discipline, extending even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the bishop. As a female an abbess was incapable of performing the spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot. She could not ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate. In the eighth century abbesses were censured for usurping priestly powers by presuming to give the veil to virgins, and to confer benediction and imposition of hands on men. In England they attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that of Becanfield in 694, where they signed before the presbyters. By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France and Spain, and even to Rome itself. At a later period, a.d. 1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior. Martene asserts that abbesses formerly confessed nuns, but that their undue inquisitiveness rendered it necessary to forbid the practice. The dress of an English abbess of the 12th century consisted of a long white tunic with close sleeves, and a black overcoat as long as the tunic, with large and loose sleeves, the hood covering the head completely. The abbesses of the 14th and 15th centuries had adopted secular habits, and there was little to distinguish them from their lay sisters. (e. v.)	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 9 [9:1:9]
kp-eb0901-001001-0025m	ABBEVILLE, a city of France, in the department of the Somme, is situated on the River Somme, 12 miles from its mouth in the English Channel, and 25 miles N.W. of Amiens. It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is built partly on an island, and partly on both sides of the river. The streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old structures, built of wood, with many quaint decaying gables and dark archways. The town is strongly fortified on Vauban’s system. It has a tribunal and chamber of commerce. The most remarkable edifice is the Church of St Wolfran, which was erected in the time of Louis XII. Although the original design was not completed, enough was built to give a good idea of the splendid structure it was intended to erect. The façade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant Gothic style, and is adorned by rich tracery, while the western front is flanked by two Gothic towers. A cloth manufactory was established here by Van Robais, a Dutchman, under the patronage of the minister Colbert, as early as 1669; and since that time Abbeville has continued to be one of the most thriving manufacturing towns in France. Besides black cloths of the best quality, there are produced velvets, cottons, linens, serges, sackings, hosiery, packthread, jewellery, soap, and glass-wares. It has also establishments for spinning wool, print-works, bleachingworks, tanneries, a paper manufactory, &c.; and being situated in the centre of a populous district, it has a considerable trade with the surrounding country. Vessels of from 200 to 300 tons come up to the town at high-water. Abbeville is a station on the Northern Railway, and is also connected with Paris and Belgium by canals. Fossil remains of gigantic mammalia now extinct, as well as the rude flint weapons of pre-historic man, have been discovered in the geological deposits of the neighbourhood. A treaty was concluded here in 1259 between Henry HI. of England and Louis IX. of France, by which the province of Guienne was ceded to the English. Population, 20,058.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 10 [9:1:10]
kp-eb0901-001002-0025m	ABBEY, a monastery, or conventual establishment, under the government of an abbot or an abbess. A priory only differed from an abbey in that the superior bore the name of prior instead of abbot. This was the case in all the English conventual cathedrals, e.g., Canterbury, Ely, Norwich, &c., where the archbishop or bishop occupied the abbot’s place, the superior of the monastery being termed prior. Other priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots of which they continued subordinate; but in later times the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. Reserving for the article Monasticism the history of tho rise and progress of the monastic system, its objects, benefits, evils, its decline and fall, we propose in this article to confine ourselves to the structural plan and arrangement of conventual establishments, and a description of the various buildings of which these vast piles were composed. The earliest Christian monastic communities with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the abode of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement. The formation of such communities in the East does not date from the introduction of Christianity. The example had been already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt, who may be considered the prototypes of the industrial and meditative communities of monks. In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, at no great distance from some village, supporting themselves by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, drove them further and further away from the abodes of men into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the cells or huts of these anchorites. Antony, who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid during the persecution of Maximin, a.d. 312, was the most celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of followers, emulous of his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They refused to be separated from him, and built their cells round that of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little dwelling, united together under one superior. Antony, as Neander remarks (Church History, vol. iii. p. 316, Clark’s Trans.), “without any conscious design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism.” By degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts. They were arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells came to be known as Laurae, Λαυραι, “streets” or “lanes.” The real founder of coenobian monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of the beginning of the 4th century. The first community established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper Egypt. Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 3000 monks. Within 50 years from his death his societies could reckon 50,000 members. These coenobia resembled villages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one sex. The buildings were detached, small, and of the humblest character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H. E. iii. 14), contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common refectory at 3 p.m., up to which hour they usually fasted. They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The monks spent all the time, not devoted to religious services or study, in manual labour. Palladius, who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the 4th century, found among the 300 [9:1:11] members of the Coenobium of Panopolis, under the Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 camel-drivers, and 15 tanners. Each separate community had its own oeconomus, or steward, who was subject to a chief oeconomus stationed at the head establishment. All the produce of the monks’ labour was committed to him, and by him shipped to Alexandria. The money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the communities, and what was over was devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the several coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency of an Archimandrite (“the chief of the fold,” from μάνδρα, a fold), and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian institution. We learn many details concerning those in the vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom’s writings. The monks lived in separate huts, κ ά λvβa ι , forming a religious hamlet on the mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common meal, of bread and water only, when the day’s labour was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in the day they joined in prayers and psalms. The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of space, and convenience of access from one part of the community to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more open courts, usually surrounded with cloisters. The usual Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent of Santa Laura, Mt. Athos (Laura, the designation of a monastery generally, being converted into a female saint). This monastery, like the Oriental monasteries generally is surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an area of between 3 and 4 acres. The longer side extends to a length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at (L.) The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H), and other offices connected with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storeyed guesthouse, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks’ cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the catholicon or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed narthex. In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns. Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform building, about 100 feet each way, decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semicircular recess, recalling the Triclinium of the Lateran Palace at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the Hegu-menos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the Oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. St Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the Convent of Vatopede, also on Mount Athos. This enormous establishment covers at least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many separate buildings within its massive walls that it resembles a fortified town. It lodges above 300 monks, and the establishment of the Hegumenos is described as resembling the court of a petty sovereign prince. The immense refectory, of the same cruciform shape as that of St Laura, will accommodate 500 guests at its 24 marble tables. The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir shows us a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery. Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development to Benedict of Nursia (born a.d. 480). His rule was diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation on Monte Cassino through the whole of Western Europe, and every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in England, France, and Spain. The number of these monasteries founded between a.d. 520 and 700 is amazing. Before the Council of Constance, a.d. 1005, no fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order alone. The Benedictine rule, spreading with the vigour of a young and powerful life, absorbed into itself the older monastic foundations, whose discipline had too usually become disgracefully relaxed. In the words of Milman (Latin Christianity, vol. i. p. 425, note x.), “The Benedictine rule was universally received, even in the older monasteries of Gaul, Britain, Spain, and throughout the West, not as that of a rival order (all rivalry was of later date), but as a more full and perfect rule of the monastic life.” Not only, therefore, were new monasteries founded, but those already existing were pulled down, and rebuilt to adapt them to the requirements of the new rule. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where necessary (as at [9:1:12] Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the steep bank of a river), to accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances. We have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about a.d. 820, which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th century. This curious and interesting plan has been made the subject of a memoir both by Keller (Zurich, 1844) and by Professor Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol. V. pp. 86-117). To the latter we are indebted for the substance of the following description, as well as for the above woodcut, reduced from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved in the archives of the convent. The general appearance of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with streets running between them. It is evidently planned in compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible, the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a mill, a bakehouse, stables and cow-houses, together with accommodation for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits. The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described :—The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community. In closest connection with the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the monastic life and its daily requirements—the refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording communication sheltered from the elements, between the various buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician’s house and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the infirmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its head-master’s house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot’s house, that he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,—one for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery,—the hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the church, not far from the abbot’s house; that for the poor on the south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery, and offices, are reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still further away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to workshops, stables, and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty-three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open “Paradise” (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A) stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in the western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church on either side of the western apse (FF). The “cloister court” (G) on the south side of the nave of the church has on its east side the “pisalis” or “calefactory” (H),the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the chapter-house, the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears, however from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the [9:1:13] north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefactory is the “dormitory” opening into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the “necessarium” (I), a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme care. The southern side is occupied by the “refectory” (K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with a building containing the bakehouse and brewhouse (M), and the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper story of the refectory is the “vestiarium,” where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, and the larder and store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the “parlour” for interviews with visitors from the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the “scriptorium” or writing-room (P 1 ), with the library above. To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e., refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or chapel on one side, placed back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to the “oblati” or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an “infirmary” (R). The “residence of the physicians” (S) stands contiguous to the infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The “house for blood-letting and purging” adjoins it on the west (U). The “outer school,” to the north of the convent area, contains a large school-room divided across the middle by a screen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master’s house (W) is opposite, built against the side wall of the church. The two “hospitia” or “guest-houses” for the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X 1 X 2 ) comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by sleeping apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen and store-room, with bed-rooms for their servants, and stables for their horses. There is also an “hospitium” for strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y). Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to the south, stands the “factory” (Z), containing workshops for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, fullers, smiths, and goldsmiths, with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm-buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a ), mills (c ), malt-house (d ). Facing the west are the stables (e ), ox-sheds (f), goat-stables (g), piggeries (h ), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants’ and labourers’ quarters (k ). At the southeast corner we find the hen and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n ). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in all. In the same way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p ) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, &c., planted there. It is evident, from this most curious and valuable document, that by the 9th century monastic establishments had become wealthy, and had acquired considerable importance, and were occupying a leading place in education, agriculture, and the industrial arts. The influence such an institution would diffuse through a wide district would be no less beneficial than powerful. The curious bird’s eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its annexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, preserved in the Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, as elucidated by Professor Willis with such admirable skill and accurate acquaintance with the existing remains,^[1. The Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of the Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert Willis. Printed for the Kent Archaeological Society, 1869. ] exhibits the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th century, and enables us to compare it with that of the 9th, as seen at St Gall. We see in both the same general principles of arrangement, which indeed belong to all Benedictine monasteries, enabling us to determine with precision the disposition of the various buildings, when little more than fragments of the walls exist. From some local reasons, however, the cloister and monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far more commonly the case, on the south of the church. There is also a separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall. The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate groups. The church forms the nucleus. In immediate contact with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the group of buildings devoted to the monastic life. Outside of these, to the west and east, are the “halls and chambers devoted to the exercise of hospitality, with which every monastery was provided, for the purpose of receiving as guests persons who visited it, whether clergy or laity, travellers, pilgrims, or paupers.” To the north a large open court divides the monastic from the menial buildings, intentionally placed as remote as possible from the conventual buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bakehouse, brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay servants of the establishment. At the greatest possible distance from the church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary department. The almonry for the relief of the poor, with a great hall annexed, forms the pauper’s hospitium. The most important group of buildings is naturally that devoted to monastic life. This includes two cloisters, the great cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with the daily life of the monks,—the church to the south, the refectory or frater-house here as always on the side opposite to the church, and furthest removed from it, that no sound or smell of eating might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the east the dormitory, raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the chapter-house adjacent, and the lodgings of the cellarer to the west. To this officer was committed the provision of the monks’ daily food, as well as that of the guests. He was, therefore, appropriately lodged in the immediate vicinity of the refectory and kitchen, and close to the guest-hall. A passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the smaller or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm monks. Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and chancel of an aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, looking out into the green court or herbarium, lies the “pisalis” or “calefactory,” the common room of the monks. At its northeast corner access was given from the dormitory to the necessarium, a portentous edifice in the form of a Norman hall, 145 feet long by 25 broad, containing fifty-five seats. It was, in common with all such offices in ancient monasteries, constructed with the most careful regard to cleanliness and [9:1:14] health, a stream of water running through it from end to end. A second smaller dormitory runs from east to west for the accommodation of the conventual officers, who were bound to sleep in the dormitory. Close to the refectory, but outside the cloisters, are the domestic offices connected with it; to the north, the kitchen, 47 feet square, surmounted by a lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to the west, the butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small kitchen of its own. Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are two lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall, at which the monks washed before and after taking food. The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three groups. The prior’s group “entered at the south-east angle of the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the cathedral, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or nobility who were assigned to him.” The cellarer’s buildings, were near the west end of the nave, in which ordinary visitors of the middle class were hospitably entertained. The inferior pilgrims and paupers were relegated to the north hall or almonry, just within the gate, as far as possible from the other two. Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be traced, with those described above. The cloister and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a vaulted substructure, and communicating with the south transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The small cloister lies to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary, with the table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers. The abbot’s house formed a small court-yard at the west entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions of this remain, including the abbot’s parlour, celebrated as “the Jerusalem Chamber,” his hall, now used for the Westminster King’s scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond. St Mary’s Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed, exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides, the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new comers paid their devotions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south was the guest’s-hall or hospitium (T). The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), the cloister-court with the chapter-house (B), the refectory (I), the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O), and the other principal apartments. The infirmary has perished completely. Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements, dependent upon local circumstances, e.g., the dormitory of Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the cloister, and that of Durham is built over the west, instead of as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrangements deduced from the examples described may be regarded as invariable. The history of Monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed, until by the 10th century the decay of discipline was so complete in France that the monks are said to have been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at all. (Robertson’s Church History, ii. p. 538.) These alternations are reflected in the monastic buildings and the arrangements of the establishment. The reformation of these prevalent abuses generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its name from the little village of Clugny, 12 miles N.W, of Macon, near which, about a.d. 909, a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William, Duke of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the order. The fame of Clugny spread far and wide. Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance to the “archabbot,” established at Clugny. By the end of the 12th century the number of monasteries affiliated to Clugny in the various countries of Western Europe amounted to 2000. The monastic establishment of Clugny was one of the most extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, a.d. 1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve [9:1:15] cardinals, a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), und three of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, Count of Flanders and Emperor of Constantinople, the Duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away at the close of the last century. When the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was 656 feet by 130 feet wide. The nave was 102 feet, and the aisles 60 feet high. The nave (G) had double vaulted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was 213 feet long, and the eastern 123 feet. The choir terminated in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church, or narthex ( B ), itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense size, placed much further to the west than is usually the case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an immense building, 100 feet long and 60 feet wide, accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings (N). The abbot’s residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the entrance gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse (M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size. The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of Lewes, founded by the Earl of Warren, cir. a.d. 1077. Of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, Norfolk, and Wenlock, in Shropshire. Ground-plans of both are given in Britton’s Architectural Antiquities. They show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement. In each the prior’s house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor become “abbeys” till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short lived. The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed. The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion, and a longer and more honourable existence. Owing its real origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedictines, in the year 1098, to a countryman of our own, Stephen Harding (a native of Dorsetshire, educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and Burgundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order is undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux (de Clara Valle), a.d. 1116. The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower—a central one—was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The triforium was omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys. They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features. The "Bright Valley,” Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the “Valley of Wormwood,” infamous as a den of robbers. “It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on beech leaves.”—(Milman’s Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.) All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan. The general arrangement and distribution of the various buildings, which went to make up one of these vast establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard’s own Abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given. It will be observed that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall, furnished at intervals with watchtowers[9:1:16] and other defensive works. The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water, artificially diverted from the small rivulets which flow through the precincts, furnishing the establishment with an abundant supply in every part, for the irrigation of the gardens and orchards, the sanitary requirements of the brotherhood, and for the use of the offices and workshops. The precincts are divided across the centre by a wall, running from N. to S., into an outer and inner ward,—the former containing the menial, the latter the monastic buildings. The precincts are entered by a gateway (P), at the extreme western extremity, giving admission to the lower ward. Here the barns, granaries, stables, shambles, workshops, and workmen’s lodgings were placed, without any regard to symmetry, convenience being the only consideration. Advancing eastwards, we have before us the wall separating the outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communication between the two. On passing through the gateway, the outer court of the inner ward was entered, with the western façade of the monastic church in front. Immediately on the right of entrance was the abbot’s house (G), in close proximity to the guest-house (F). On the other side of the court were the stables, for the accommodation of the horses of the guests and their attendants (H). The church occupied a central position. To the south were the great cloister (A), surrounded by the chief monastic buildings, and further to the east the smaller cloister, opening out of which were the infirmary, novices’ lodgings, and quarters for the aged monks. Still further to the east, divided from the monastic buildings by a wall, were the vegetable gardens and orchards, and tank for fish. The large fish-ponds, an indispensable adjunct to any ecclesiastical foundation, on the formation of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and which often remain as almost the only visible traces of these vast establishments, were placed outside the abbey walls. The Plan No. 2 furnishes the ichnography of the distinctly monastic buildings on a larger scale. The usually unvarying arrangement of the Cistercian houses allows us to accept this as a type of the monasteries of this order. The church (A) is the chief feature. It consists of a vast nave of eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept and short apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the eastern limb in all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably short, and usually square.) To the east of each limb of the transept are two square chapels, divided according to Cistercian rule by solid walls. Nine radiating chapels, similarly divided, surround the apse. The stalls of the monks, forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays of the nave. There was a second range of stalls in the extreme western bays of the nave for the fratres conversi, or lay brothers. To the south of the church, so as to secure as much sun as possible, the cloister was invariably placed, except when local reasons forbade it. Round the cloister (B) were ranged the buildings connected with the monks’ daily life. The chapter-house (C) always opened out of the east walk of the cloister in a line with the [9:1:17] south transept. In Cistercian houses this was quadrangular, and was divided by pillars and arches into two or three aisles. Between it and the transept we find the sacristy (X), and a small book room (Y), armariolum, where the brothers deposited the volumes borrowed from the library. On the other side of the chapter-house, to the south, is a passage (D) communicating with the courts and buildings beyond. This was sometimes known as the parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the privilege of conversation here. Here also, when discipline became relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission, were allowed to display their goods. Beyond this we often find the calefactorium or day-room— an apartment warmed by flues beneath the pavement, where the brethren, half frozen during the night offices, betook themselves after the conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease their sandals, and get themselves ready for the work of the day. In the plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the south cloister walk, adjoining the refectory. The place usually assigned to it is occupied by the vaulted substructure of the dormitory (Z). The dormitory, as a rule, was placed on the east side of the cloister, running over the calefactory and chapter-house, and joined the south transept, where a flight of steps admitted the brethren into the church for nocturnal services. Opening out of the dormitory was always the necessarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and cleanliness, a water-course invariably running from end to end. The refectory opens out of the south cloister at (G). The position of the refectory is usually a marked point of difference between Benedictine and Cistercian abbeys. In the former, as at Canterbury, the refectory ran east and west parallel to the nave of the church, on the side of the cloister furthest removed from it. In the Cistercian monasteries, to keep the noise and sound of dinner still further away from the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south, at right angles to the axis of the church. It was often divided, sometimes into two, sometimes, as here, into three aisles. Outside the refectory door, in the cloister, was the lavatory, where the monks washed their hands at dinner time. The buildings belonging to the material life of the monks lay near the refectory, as far as possible from the church, to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer court was the kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery, and larder, and the important adjunct of a stream of running water. Further to the west, projecting beyond the line of the west front of the church, were vast vaulted apartments (SS), serving as cellars and storehouses, above which was the dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various workshops, which convenience required to be banished to the outer precincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned by water, and a currier’s shop (V), where the sandals and leathern girdles of the monks were made and repaired. Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small cloister (I), opening from the north side of which were eight small cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works for the library, which was placed in the upper story, accessible by a turret staircase. To the south of the small cloister a long hall will be noticed. This was a lecture-hall, or rather a hall for the religious disputations customary among the Cistercians. From this cloister opened the infirmary (K), with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house, aud other dependencies. At the eastern verge of the vast group of buildings we find the novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister near the novices’ quarters and the original guest-house (M). Detached from the great mass of the monastic edifices was the original abbot’s house (N), with its dining-hall (P). Closely adjoining to this, so that the eye of the father of the whole establishment should be constantly over those who stood the most in need of his watchful care,—those who were training for the monastic life, and those who had worn themselves out in its duties,—was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the establishment. The cemetery, the last resting-place of the brethren, lay to the north side of the nave of the church (H). It will be seen that the arrangement of a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a clearly-defined system, and admirably adapted to its purpose. The base court nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings belonging to the functions of the body as agriculturalists and employers of labour. Advancing into the inner court, the buildings devoted to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren,—the kitchen, cellars, &c.,—form a court of themselves outside the cloister, and quite detached from the church. The church refectory, dormitory, and other buildings belonging to the professional life of the brethren, surround the great cloister. The small cloister beyond, with its scribes’ cells, library, hall for disputations, &c., is the centre of the literary life of the community. The requirements of sickness and old age are carefully provided for in the infirmary cloister, and that for the aged and infirm members of the establishment. The same group contains the quarters of the novices. This stereotyped arrangement is further illustrated by the accompanying bird’s eye view of the mother establishment of Citeaux. A cross (A), planted on the high road. [9:1:18] directs travellers to the gate of the monastery, reached by an avenue of trees. On one side of the gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably the almonry, with a dormitory above for the lower class of guests. On the other side is a chapel (D). As soon as the porter heard a stranger knock at the gate, he rose, saying, Deo gratias, the opportunity for the exercise of hospitality being regarded as a cause for thankfulness. On opening the door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing— Benedicite. He fell on his knees before him, and then went to inform the abbot. However important the abbot’s occupations might be, he at once hastened to receive him whom heaven had sent. He also threw himself at his guest’s feet, and conducted him to the chapel (D) purposely built close to the gate. After a short prayer, the abbot committed the guest to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it was to provide for his wants, and conduct the beast on which he might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner gate-house (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court (T), round which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c. On the eastern side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers, fratres conversi (G), detached from the cloister, with cellars and storehouses below. At (H), also outside the monastic buildings proper, was the abbot’s house, and annexed to it the guest-house. For these buildings there was a separate door of entrance into the church (S). The large cloister, with its surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end projects the refectory (K), with its kitchen at (I), accessible from the base court. The long gabled building on the east side of the cloister contained on the ground floor the chapter-house and calefactory, with the monks’ dormitory above (M), communicating with the south transept of the church. At (L) was the staircase to the dormitory. The small cloister is at (W), where were the carols or cells of the scribes, with the library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase. At (R) we see a portion of the infirmary. The whole precinct is surrounded by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches, through which streams of water are introduced. It will be noticed that the choir of the church is short, and has a square end instead of the usual apse. The tower, in accordance with the Cistercian rule, is very low. The windows throughout accord with the studied simplicity of the order. The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such extensive and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, Kirkstall, Tintern, Netley, &c., were mainly arranged after the same plan, with slight local variations. As an example, we give the ground-plan of Kirkstall Abbey, which is one of the best preserved and least altered. The church here is of the Cistercian type, with a short chancel of two squares, and transepts with three eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls (2 2 2). The whole is of the most studied plainness. The windows are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium. The cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the nave. On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter house (5), between which and the south transept is a small sacristy (3), and on the other side two small apartments, one of which was probably the parlour (6). Beyond this stretches southward the calefactory or day-room of the monks (14). Above this whole range of building runs the monks’ dormitory, opening by stairs into the south transept of the church. At the other end were the necessaries. On the south side of the cloister we have the remains of the old refectory (11), running, as in Benedictine houses, from east to west, and the new refectory (12), which, with the increase of the inmates of the house, superseded it, stretching, as is usual in Cistercian houses, from north to south. Adjacent to this apartment are the remains of the kitchen, pantry, and buttery. The arches of the lavatory are to be seen near the refectory entrance. The western side of the cloister is, as usual, occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper story the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the walls and foundations of a secondary group of considerable extent. These have been identified either with the hospitium or with the abbot’s house, but they occupy the position in Which the infirmary is more usually found. The hall was a very spacious apartment, measuring 83 feet in length by 48 feet 9 inches in breadth, and was divided by two rows of columns. The fish-ponds lay between the monastery and the river to the south. The abbey mill was situated about 80 yards to the north-west, The mill-pool may be distinctly traced, together with the gowt or mill stream. Fountains Abbey, first founded a.d. 1132, deserves special notice, as one of the largest and best preserved Cistercian houses in England. But the earlier buildings received considerable additions and alterations in the later period of the order, causing deviations from the strict Cistercian type. The church stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the stream. We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the three-aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from its eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) and buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk, Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure (U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars and store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi above. This building extended across the river. At its [9:1:19] S.W. corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above the swiftly flowing stream. The monks’ dormitory was in its usual position above the chapter-house, to the south of the transept. As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed the position of the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and calefactory, and of the infirmary (W) (unless there is some error in its designation) above the river to the west, adjoining the guest-houses (XX). We may also call attention to the greatly lengthened choir, commenced by Abbot John of York, 1203-1211, and carried on by his successor, terminating, like Durham Cathedral, in an eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Kent, 1220- 1247, and to the tower (D), added not long before the dissolution by Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very unusual position at the northern end of the north transept. The abbot’s house, the largest and most remarkable example of this class of buildings in the kingdom, stands south to the east of the church and cloister, from which it is divided by the kitchen court (K),surrounded by the ordinary domestic offices. A considerable portion of this house was erected on arches over the Skell. The size and character of this house, probably, at the time of its erection, the most spacious house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks the wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern simplicity of the original foundation. The hall (2) was one of the most spacious and magnificent apartments in mediaeval times, measuring 170 feet by 70 feet Like the hall in the castle at Winchester, and Westminster Hall, as originally built, it was divided by 18 pillars and arches, with 3 aisles. Among other apartments, for the designation of which we must refer to the ground-plan, was a domestic oratory or chapel, 46½ feet by 23 feet, and a kitchen (7), 50 feet by 38 feet. The whole arrangements and character of the building bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the humble father of a body of hardworking brethren, bound by vows to a life of poverty and self-denying toil. In the words of Dean Milman, “the superior, once a man bowed to the earth with humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot on his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver cross before him, travelling to take his place amid the lordliest of the realm.”— (Lat. Christ., vol. iii. p. 330.) The buildings of the Austin Canons or Black Canons (so called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiarities. This order had its first seat in England at Colchester, where a house for Austin Canons was founded about a.d. 1105, and it very soon spread widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ Church (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, &c., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, Brinkburn, and Lanercost. The arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior’s lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave. The annexed plan of the Abbey of St Augustine’s at Bristol, now the cathedral church of [9:1:20] that city, shows the arrangement of the buildings, which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type. The Austin Canons’ house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date. The Preτnonstratensian regular canons, or White Canons, had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect remaining are those of Easby, Yorkshire, and Bayham, Sussex. The head house of the order in England was Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, a.d. 1119, by Norbert (born at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 1080) at Prémontré, a secluded marshy valley in the forest of Coucy, in the diocese of Laon. The order spread widely. Even in the founder’s lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and Palestine. It long maintained its rigid austerity, till in the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England shortly after a.d. 1140, and were first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the Humber. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply-sloping banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave—that to the north; while the choir is long, narrow, and aisleless. Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. The church at Bayham was destitute of aisle either to nave or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 feet, it is not more than 25 feet broad. To adopt the words of Mr Beresford Hope—“Stern Premonstratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared for no processions; therefore they built their church like a long room.” The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno, about a.d. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and arrangement of a monastic institution. The principle of this order, which, combined the coenobitic with the solitary life, demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve companions at the original institution at Chartreux, near Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establishments throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive simplicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence of decoration which characterises such foundations as the Certosas of Pavia and Florence. According to the rule of St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister. In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of Clermont, from Viollet le Duc. The whole establishment is surrounded with a wall, furnished at intervals with watch towers (R). The enclosure is divided into two courts, of which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from which the cottages of the monks (I) open, is much the larger. The two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary (A), divided from (B), the monks’ choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south (S) surrounded by the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X)—these buildings occupying their normal position—and the chapel of Pontgibaud (K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the refectory, accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister. To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy (L), and the side chapels (M), we find the cell of the sub-prior (a) , with its garden. The lodgings of the prior (G) occupy the centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent (O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), the stables, and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns and granaries (Q), the dovecot (H), and the bakehouse (T). At (Z) is the prison. (In this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and inner court are connected by a long passage (F), wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room (C), warmed with a stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D), furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and a closet (E). Between the cell and the cloister gallery (A) is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his meditations. The superior had [9:1:21] free access to this corridor, and through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being seen. At (I) is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards. (H) is the garden, cultivated by the occupant of the cell. At (K) is the wood-house. (F) is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end. These arrangements are found with scarcely any variation in all the charter-houses of Western Europe. The Yorkshire Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland the young Duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II., and Marshal of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order, about a.d. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English example. It is characterised by all the simplicity of the order. The church is a modest building, long, narrow, and aisleless. Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, refectory, &c., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number. It is surrounded by a double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 feet or 40 feet apart. Between these, each in its own garden, stand the cells; low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the ground-floor, lighted with a larger and a smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse of his garden to the “eremus” beyond. By the side of the door to the court is a little hatch, through which the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch —an arrangement belonging to all Carthusian houses— exists at Miraflores, near Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded by Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into England. The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Shene or Richmond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about a.d. 1414. The dimensions of the buildings at Shene are stated to have been remarkably large. The great court measured 300 feet by 250 feet; the cloisters were a square of 500 feet; the hall was 110 feet in length by 60 feet in breadth. The most celebrated historically is the Charter-house of London, founded by Sir Walter Manny a.d. 1371. the name of which is preserved by the famous public school established on the site by Thomas Sutton a.d. 1611. An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or Dominicans, the Grey or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, the Eremite or Austin Friars. These orders arose at the beginning of the 13th century, when the Benedictines, together with their various reformed branches, had terminated their active mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new religious revival. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it. Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by transepts. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir is often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end was usually square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This arrangement is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel aisles, while the refectory— a room of immense length, quite detached from the cloister —stretched across the area before the west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapels. The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east. As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at Norwich, and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester, may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the nave (now St Andrew’s Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and aisleless ; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished. The cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the cloistercourt, on the north side of which is the desecrated church. The refectory is on the west side, and on the south the dormitory of the 13th century. This is a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the east side was the prior’s house, a building of later date. At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower between the nave and choir. Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey of Hulme, near Alnwick, the first of the order in England, founded a.d. 1240. The church is a narrow [9:1:22] oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 feet long by only 26 feet wide. The cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, &c., to the east, with the dormitory over. The prior’s lodge is placed to the west of the cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites in London is still standing. It is of Decorated date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the cloister of the Grey Friars exist among the buildings of Christ’s Hospital or the Blue-Coat School. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name. Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine of St Alban’s, Matthew Paris :—“The friars who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of poverty, and violating the very fundamental rules of their profession.” Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity. Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more smaller establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted on some outlying estate. As an example, we may refer to the small religious house of St Mary Magdalene’s, a cell of the great Benedictine house of St Mary’s, York, in the valley of the Witham, to the south-east of the city of Lincoln. This consists of one long narrow range of building, of which the eastern part formed the chapel, and the western contained the apartments of the handful of monks of which it was the home. To the east may be traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and mill-lead. These cells, when belonging to a Cluniac house, were called Obedientioe. The plan given by Viollet le Duc of the Priory of St Jean des Bons Hommes, a Cluniac cell, situated between the town of Avallon and the village of Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments comprised every essential feature of a monastery,—chapel, cloister, chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped according to the recognised arrangement. These Cluniac obedientioe differed from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of penitentiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as farm-servants. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers under the management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother Hospitaller— the granges, like their parent institutions, affording shelter and hospitality to belated travellers. Authorities:— Dugdale, Monasticon; Fosbrooke, British Monachism; Helyot, Dictionnaire des Ordres Religieux; Lenoir, Architecture Monastique ; Viollet le Duc, Dictionnaire Raisonnée de l’Architecture Francaise; Walcott, Conventual Arrangement ; Willis, Abbey of St Gall; Archaeological Journal, vol. v., Conventual Buildings of Canterbury; Curzon, Monasteries of the Levant. (e. v.)	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 10 [9:1:10]
kp-eb0901-002201-0037m	ABBIATE GRASSO, a town in the north of Italy, near the Ticino, 14 miles W.S.W. of Milan. It has silk manufactures, and contains about 5000 inhabitants.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 22 [9:1:22]
kp-eb0901-002202-0037m	ABBON of Fleury. or Abbo Floriacensis, a learned Frenchman, born near Orleans in 945. He distinguished himself in the schools of Paris and Rheims, and was a proficient in science, as known in his time. After spending two years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in restoring the monastic system, he returned to France, and was made Abbot of Fleury (970). He was twice sent to Rome by Robert the Wise (986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a threatened papal interdict. He was killed in 1004, in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt. He wrote an epitome of the Lives of the Roman Pontiffs, besides controversial treatises, letters, &c.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 22 [9:1:22]
kp-eb0901-002203-0037m	ABBOT, the head and chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the East Archimandrita, from mandra, “a fold,” or Hegumenos. The name abbot is derived from the Hebrew אב, Ab, or father, through the Syriac Abba. It had its origin in the monasteries of Syria, whence it spread through the East, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, as we learn from St Jerome (in Epist. ad Gal. iv. 6, in Matt. xxiii. 9), but it was soon restricted to the Superior. The name abbot, though general in the West, was not universal. Among the Dominicians, Carmelites, Augustines, &c., the superior was called Proepositus, “Provost,” and Prior; among the Franciscans, Custos, “Guardian;” and by the monks of Camaldoli, Major. Monks, as a role, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. All orders of clergy, therefore, even the “doorkeeper,” took precedence of him. For the reception of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church.—(Novellas, 133, c. ii.) This rule naturally proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert, or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination of abbots. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not presbyters. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century, and partially so up to the 11th. Ecclesiastical Councils were, however, attended by abbots. Thus, at that held at Constantinople, a.d. 448, for the condemnation of Eutyches, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and, cir. a.d. 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a canon, inhibiting bishops from compelling abbots to attend councils. Examples are not uncommon in Spain and in England in Saxon times. Abbots were permitted by the Second Council of Nicaea, a.d. 787, to ordain their monks to the inferior orders. This rule was adopted in the West, and the strong prejudice against clerical monks having gradually broken down, eventually monks, almost without exception, belonged to some grade of the ministry. Originally no abbot was permitted to rule over more than one monastic community, though, in some exceptional cases, Gregory the Great allowed the rule to be broken. As time went on, violations of the role became increasingly frequent, as is proved by repeated enactments against it. The cases of Wilfrid of York, cir. a.d. 675, who held the abbacy of the monasteries he had founded at Hexham and Ripon, and of Aldhelm, who, at the same date, stood in the same double relation to those of Malmesbury, Frome, and Bradford, are only apparent transgressions of the rule. We find more decided instances of plurality in Hugh of the royal Carlovingian house, cir. 720, who was at the same [9:1:23] time Bishop of Rouen, Paris, Bayeux, and Abbot of Fontenelle and Jumiéges; and Sidonius, Bishop of Constance, who, being already Abbot of Reichenau, took the abbacy of St Gall also. Hatto of Mentz, dr. 912, annexed to his see no less than 12 abbacies. In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, we find abbots in chief or archimandrites exercising jurisdiction over a large number of communities, each of which had its own abbot. Thus, Cassian speaks of an abbot in the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him, a number exceeded in other cases. In later times also, general jurisdiction was exercised over the houses of their order by the abbots of Monte Cassino, St Dalmatius, Clugny, &c. The abbot of Cassino was styled Abbas Abbatum. The chiefs of other orders had the titles of Abbas Generalis, or Magister, or Minister Generalis. Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The Codex of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.), expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, Abbot of Lerins, at the Council of Arles, a.d. 456; but the oppressive conduct, and exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the Pope alone, received an impulse from Gregory the Great. These exceptions, though introduced with a good object, had grown into a wide-spread and crying evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio, and entirely depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of power and influence in his diocese. In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the Archbishop of Cologne. Abbots more and more aped episcopal state, and in defiance of the express prohibition of early councils, and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves, and sandals. A mitre is said to have been granted to the Abbot of Bobbio by Pope Theodorus I., a.d. 643, and to the Abbot of St Savianus by Sylvester II., a.d. 1000. Ducange asserts that pontifical insignia were first assigned to abbots by John XVIII., a.d. 1004-1009; but the first undoubted grant is said to be that to the Abbot of St Maximinian at Treves, by Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), a.d. 1073-1085. The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban’s, Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund’s, St Augustine’s Canterbury, Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet’s Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winchcombe, St Mary’s York. Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the Abbot of Glastonbury, until in a.d. 1154 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the Abbot of St Alban’s, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the Abbot of St Alban’s ranked the Abbot of Westminster. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran Council, a.d. 1123. In the East, abbots, if in. priests’ orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the Second Nicene Council, a.d. 787, to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but they gradually advanced higher claims, until we find them authorised by Bellarmine to be associated with a single bishop in episcopal consecrations, and permitted by Innocent IV., a.d. 1489, to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks, and vesting them with the religious habit. In the first instance, when a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the Pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot’s journey to Rome. By the rule of St Benedict, the consent of the laity was in some undefined way required; but this seems never to have been practically enforced. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the Pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Clugny, Prémontré, and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or, when he was directly subject to them, by the Pope or the bishop. The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot in mediaeval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office. He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon. The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control. As a rule, however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act without his orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty to execute his orders, however unreasonable, until they were withdrawn. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as the highest excellence, are detailed by Cassian and others,— e.g., a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays down, as the principle of the compact between the abbot and his monks, that they should obey their superiors in all things, and perform whatever they commanded.—(Ep. 2, ad Eustoch. de custod, [9:1:24] virgin.) So despotic did the tyranny become in the West, that in the time of Charlemagne it was necessary to restrain abbots by legal enactments from mutilating their monks, and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St Columba ordained 100 lashes as the punishment for very slight offences. An abbot also had the power of excommunicating refractory nuns, which he might use if desired by their abbess. The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, like those of the Pope and the king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to kneel. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission. The highest place was naturally assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the rule of St Benedict appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the Council of Aix, a.d. 817, decreed that the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. At St Alban’s the abbot took the lord’s seat, in the centre of the high table, and was served on silver plate, and sumptuously entertained noblemen, ambassadors, and strangers of quality. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk, and idle gossipping. The complaint, however, was sometimes made (as by Matt. Paris of Wulsig, the third abbot of St Alban’s), that they invited ladies of rank to dine with them instead of their monks. The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting great sumptuousness of attire. Nay, they sometimes laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress.^[1. Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban’s, circa 930, is charged by Matthew Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman. ] This was a necessary consequence of their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at that time only natural. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs, and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, cir. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare-hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, attended by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last Abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by Henry VIII., that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance, and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a-week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when ho travelled to attend Parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Clugny and Vendome were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Romish Church. In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred to clerics who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the Carlovingians to the chief chaplain of the king, Abbas Curioe, or military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas Castrensis. It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called Abbas Populi. Ducange, in his Glossary, also gives us Abbas Campanilis, Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c. Lay abbots, so called, had their origin in the system of commendation, in the 8th century. By this, to meet any great necessity of the state, such as an inroad of the Saracens, the revenues of monasteries were temporarily commended, i.e., handed over to some layman, a noble, or even the king himself, who for the time became titular abbot. Enough was reserved to maintain the monastic brotherhood, and when the occasion passed away the revenues were to be restored to their rightful owners. The estates, however, had a habit of lingering in lay hands, so that in the 9th and 10th centuries most of the sovereigns and nobles among the Franks and Burgundians were titular abbots of some great monastery, the revenues of which they applied to their own purposes. These lay-abbots were styled Abbacomites or Abbates Milites. Hugh Capet, before his elevation to the throne, as an Abbacomes held the abbeys of St Denis and St Germain in commendam. Bishop Hatto, of Mentz, a.d. 891-912, is said to have held 12 abbeys in commendam at once. In England, as we see from the Acts of the Council of Cloveshoe, in the 8th century, monasteries were often invaded and occupied by laymen. This occurred sometimes from the monastery having voluntarily placed itself under the protection of a powerful layman, who, from its protector, became its oppressor. Sometimes there were two lines of abbots, one of laymen enjoying the lion’s share of the revenues, another of clerics fulfilling the proper duties of an abbot on a small fraction of the income. The gross abuse of lay commendation which had sprung up during the corruption of the monastic system passed away with its reformation in the 10th century, either voluntarily or by compulsion. The like abuse prevailed in the East at a later period. John, Patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the 12th century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, beneficiarii, for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors. In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior. In other convents the prior was the second officer next to the abbot, representing him in his absence, and fulfilling his duties. The superiors of the cells, or small monastic establishments dependent on the larger monasteries, were also called priors. They were appointed by the abbots, and held office at their pleasure. Authorities:— Bingham, Origines ; Ducange, Glossary; Herzog, Realwörterbuch ; Robertson, Ch. Hist.; Martene, De Antiq. Monast. Ritibus , Montalembert, Monks of the West (e. V.) [9:1:25]	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 22 [9:1:22]
kp-eb0901-002501-0040m	ABBOT, Charles, speaker of the House of Commons from 1802 to 1817, afterwards created Lord Colchester. See Colchester.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 25 [9:1:25]
kp-eb0901-002502-0040m	ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born October 19, 1562, at Guildford in Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford, and was chosen Master of University College in 1597. He was three times appointed to the office of Vice-Chancellor of the University. When in 1604 the version of the Bible now in use was ordered to be prepared, Dr Abbot’s name stood second on the list of the eight Oxford divines to whom was intrusted the translation of the New Testament, excepting the Epistles. In 1608 he went to Scotland with the Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the Churches of England and Scotland, and his conduct in that negotiation laid the foundation of his preferment, by attracting to him the notice and favour of the king. Without having held any parochial charge, he was appointed Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month afterwards, and in less than a year was made Archbishop of Canterbury. This rapid preferment was due as much perhaps to his flattering his royal master as to his legitimate merits. After his elevation he showed on several occasions firmness and courage in resisting the king. In the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against the Earl of Essex, the archbishop persistently opposed the dissolution of the marriage, though the influence of the king and court was strongly and successfully exerted in the opposite direction. In 1618, when a declaration was published by the king, and ordered to be read in all the churches, permitting sports and pastimes on the Sabbath, Abbot had the courage to forbid its being read at Croydon, where he happened to be at the time. As may be inferred from the incident just mentioned, Abbot was of the Protestant or Puritan party in the Church. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the Elector Palatine and the Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta of Spain. This policy brought upon him the hatred of Laud and the court. The king, indeed, never forsook him; but Buckingham was his avowed enemy, and he was regarded with dislike by the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I. In 1622 a sad misfortune befell the archbishop while hunting in Lord Zouch’s park at Bramzill. A bolt from his cross-brow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholy. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that “an angel might have miscarried after this sort.” A decision was given in the archbishop’s favour; but to prevent disputes, it was recommended that the king should formally absolve him, and confer his office upon him anew. After this the archbishop seldom appeared at the council, chiefly on account of his infirmities. He attended the king constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation of Charles I. A pretext was soon found by his enemies for depriving him of all his functions as primate, which were put in commission by the king. This high-handed procedure was the result of Abbot’s refusal to license a sermon preached by Dr Sibthorp, in which the king’s prerogative was stretched beyond constitutional limits. The archbishop had his powers restored to him shortly afterwards, however, when the king found it absolutely necessary to summon a Parliament. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendency. He died at Croydon on the 5th August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed an hospital with lands to the value of £300 a year. Abbot wrote a large number of works; but, with the exception of his Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was reprinted in 1845, they are now little known. His Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World, passed through numerous editions.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 25 [9:1:25]
kp-eb0901-002503-0040m	ABBOT, George, known as “The Puritan,” has been oddly and persistently mistaken for others. He has been described as a clergyman, which he never was, and as son of Sir Morris Abbot, and his writings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities as by the nephew of the Archbishop of Canterbury. One of the sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a different family altogether. He was son or grandson (it is not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington, East Yorkshire, having been born there in 1603-4, his mother (or grandmother) being of the ancient house of Pickering. He married a daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, Warwickshire, and as his monument, which may still be seen in the church there, tells, he bravely held it against Prince Rupert and Maurice during the civil war. He was a member of the Long Parliament for Tamworth. As a layman, and nevertheless a theologian and scholar of rare ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost unique place in the literature of the period. His Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to understand (1640, 4to), is in striking contrast, in its concinnity and terseness, with the prolixity of too many of the Puritan expositors and commentators. His Vindiciae Sabbathi (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting influence in the long Sabbatic controversy. His Brief Notes upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date shows, was posthumous. He died February 2, 1648. (MS. collections at Abbey-ville for history of all of the name of Abbot, by J. T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington; Dugdale’s Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1656, p. 791; Wood’s Athenae (Bliss), s. v.; Cox’s Literature of the Sabbath; Dr James Gilfillan on The Sabbath; Lowndes, Bodleian, B. Museum Catal. s. v.) (a. b. g.)	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 25 [9:1:25]
kp-eb0901-002504-0040m	ABBOT, Robert. Noted as this Puritan divine was in his own time, and representative in various ways, he has hitherto been confounded with others, as Robert Abbot, Bishop of Salisbury, and his personality distributed over a Robert Abbot of Cranbrook; another of Southwick, Hants; a third of St Austin’s, London; while these successive places were only the successive livings of the one Robert Abbot. He is also described as of the Archbishop’s or Guildford Abbots, whereas he was in no way related, albeit he acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles-dedicatory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepe ovt Sinne and Antichrist (1623, 4to), that it was from the archbishop he had “received all” his “worldly maintenance,” as well as “best earthly countenance” and “fatherly incouragements.” The worldly maintenance was the presentation to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent, of which the archbishop was patron. This was in 1616. He had received his education at Cambridge, where he proceeded Μ.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In 1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells us, “I have lived now, by God’s gratious dispensation, above fifty years, and in the place of my allotment two and twenty full.” The former date carries us back to 1588-89, or perhaps 1587-88—the [9:1:26] “Armada” year—as his birth-time; the latter to 1616-17 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters (1626), he describes himself as formerly “assistant to a reverend divine .... now with God,” and the name on the margin is “Master Haiward of Wool Church.” This was doubtless previous to his going to Cranbrook. Very remarkable and effective was Abbot’s ministry at Cranbrook, where the father of Phineas and Giles Fletcher was the first “Reformation” pastor, and which, relatively small as it is, is transfigured by being the birth-place of the poet of the “Locustae” and “The Purple Island.” His parishioners were as his own “sons and daughters” to him, and by day and night he thought and felt, wept and prayed, for them and with them. He is a noble specimen of the rural clergyman of his age. Puritan though he was in his deepest convictions, he was a thorough Churchman as toward Nonconformists, e.g., the Brownists, with whom he waged stern warfare. He remained until 1643 at Cranbrook, aud then chose the very inferior living of Southwick, Hants, as between the one and the other, the Parliament deciding against pluralities of ecclesiastical offices. Succeeding the “extruded” Udall of St Austine’s, Abbot continued there until a good old age. In 1657, in the Warning-piece, he is described as still “pastor of Austine’s in London.” He disappears silently between 1657-8 and 1662. Robert Abbot’s books are distinguished from many of the Puritans by their terseness and variety. (Brook’s Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker’s Sufferings; Wood’s Athenae (Bliss); Catalogus Impressorum Librorum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana, s.v.; Palmer’s Nonconf. Mem., ii. 218.) (a. b. g.)	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 25 [9:1:25]
kp-eb0901-002601-0041m	ABBOTSFORD, the celebrated residence of Sir Walter Scott, situated on the south bank of the river Tweed, about three miles above Melrose. The nucleus of the property was a small farm of 100 acres, with the “inharmonious designation” of Clarty Hole, acquired by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. It was gradually increased by various acquisitions, the last and principal being that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntly burn), purchased in 1817. The present new house was then commenced, and was completed in 1824. The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines— one side overlooking the Tweed, and the other facing a courtyard; and the general style of the building is the Scottish baronial. Scott had only enjoyed his new residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of fortune (connected with the failure of Ballantyne and Constable), which involved the estate in debt. In 1830, the library^[1. The Catalogue of the Library at Abbotsford forms vol. lxi. of the Bannatyne Club publications. ] and museum were presented as a free gift by the creditors; and after Scott’s death, which took place at Abbotsford in September 1832, a committee of friends subscribed a further sum of about £8000 towards the same object. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847, by Mr Cadell, the publisher, accepting the remaining claims of the family over Sir Walter Scott’s writings in requital of his obligation to obliterate the heritable bond on the property. The result of this transaction was, that not only was the estate redeemed by the fruit of Scott’s brain, but a handsome residue fell to the publisher. Scott’s only son Walter (Lieutenant-Colonel 15th Hussars) did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from India in 1847. Its subsequent possessors have been Scott’s son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, and the latter’s son-in-law, J. R. Hope Scott, Q.C., whose daughter (Scott’s great-granddaughter) is the present proprietor. Mr Lockhart died at Abbotsford in 1854.—See Life of Scott, by J. G. Lockhart; Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey, by Washington Irving; Abbotsford Notanda in Gentleman’s Mag., April and May 1869; The Lands of Scott, by James F. Hunnewell, cr. 8vo, 1871; Scott Loan Exhibition Catalogue, 4to, 1871.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 26 [9:1:26]
kp-eb0901-002602-0041m	ABBOTSFORD CLUB, one of the principal printing clubs, was founded in 1834 by Mr W. B. D. D. Turnbull, and named in honour of Sir Walter Scott. Taking a wider range than its predecessors, the Bannatyne and Maitland Clubs, it did not confine its printing (as remarked by Mr Lockhart) to works connected with Scotland, but admitted all materials that threw fight on the ancient history of literature of any country, anywhere described or discussed by the Author of Waverley. The club, now dissolved, consisted of fifty members; and the publications extend to 34 vols, quarto, issued during the years 1835-1864.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 26 [9:1:26]
kp-eb0901-002603-0041m	ABBREVIATION, a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent them for the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both of single words and of phrases, having a meaning more or less fixed and recognised, are common in ancient writings and inscriptions, and very many are in use at the present time. A distinction is to be observed between abbreviations and tho contractions that are frequently to be met with in old manuscripts, and even in early printed books, whereby letters are dropped out here and there, or particular collocations of letters represented by somewhat arbitrary symbols. The commonest form of abbreviation is the substitution for a word of its initial letter; but, with a view to prevent ambiguity, one or more of the other letters are frequently added. Letters are often doubled to indicate a plural or a superlative. [table] [table] [9:1:27] [table] [9:1:28] [table] [table] [table] [9:1:29] [table] [table] [table] (See Graevius’s Thesaurus Antiquitatum, 1694, sqq.; Nicolai’s Tractatus de Siglis Veterum; Mommsen’s Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 1863, sqq.; Natalis de Wailly’s Paléographie, Paris, 1838; Alph. Chassant’s Paléographie, 1854, and Dictionnaire des Abréviations, 3d ed., 1866. A manual of the abbreviations in current use is a desideratum.)	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 26 [9:1:26]
kp-eb0901-002901-0044m	ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the Papal Chancery, whose business is to sketch out and prepare in due form the Pope’s bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees. [9:1:30] They are first mentioned in a bull of Benedict XII., early in the 14th century. Their number is fixed at seventy-two, of whom twelve, distinguished as de parco majori, hold prelatic rank; twenty-two, de parco minori, are clergymen of lower rank; and the remainder, examinatores, may be laymen.	ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025 [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/. License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive. This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 29 [9:1:29]

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Dataset Card for EB9

Encyclopædia Britannica (EB) is the most prestigious reference work in English. This dataset contains the text of the entries from the 9th edition (EB9) as well automatically extracted geographical coordinates.

The original text comes from the Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project

Data Instances

Each sample is a JSON dictionnary with id, the entry ID in the Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project nomenclature, texte, the text of the entry and coords, the coordinates if any, and a disclaimer, as for example:

{'id': 'kp-eb0901-000304-0018m',
 'texte': "AARHUUS, a city and seaport of Denmark, situated on the Cattegat, in lat. 56° 9' N., long. 10° 12' E. It is the chief town of a fertile district of the same name, one of the subdivisions of Jutland. The cathedral of Aarhuus is a Gothic structure, and the largest church in Denmark. The town also contains a lyceum, museum, and library. Aarhuus is a place of extensive trade. It has a good and safe harbour, has regular steam communication with Copenhagen, and is connected by rail with Viborg and the interior of the country. Agricultural produce, spirits, leather, and gloves are exported, and there are sugar refineries, and manufactures of wool, cotton, and tobacco. Population (1870), 15,020.",
 'disclaimer': "ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION: A MACHINE-READABLE TEXT\n TRANSCRIPTION (v1.1), The Nineteenth-Century Knowledge Project, 2025\n [email protected], https://tu-plogan.github.io/.\n\n License: CC-BY-4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.\n\n Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences,\n and General Literature. 9th ed., 25 vols. NY: Charles Scribner's\n Sons, 1875-1889. (Authorized edition.) Image scans: Internet Archive.\n\n This entry: 9th edition, volume 1, page 3 [9:1:3]",
 'coords': "56 9' N 10 12' E"}
}

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